Argumentative Reasoning: Development, Training, and Relevance to Academic Outcomes.

Argumentative reasoning (AR) refers to the kind of reasoning used when individuals engage in argument about a disputed claim or proposed action. In its mature, most proficient form, AR involves several reasoning skills such as providing effective justification for one's claims, anticipating and defending against challenges to those claims, and critiquing the position and reasoning of one's opponent in the argument. Mature AR also involves an idealized understanding of argument as a rule-governed, rational process in which arguers seek to persuade one another through reasons, rather than through force or emotion. WE There is compelling evidence that proficiency in AR, resulting from natural development or from targeted educational experiences and training, is associated with better academic outcomes in middle childhood, adolescence, and emerging adulthood. These outcomes include greater depth and breadth of learning in specific content areas (e.g., science), more effective written communication, and higher order critical thinking. This article begins with a discussion of the nature and significance of AR, followed by an account of the link between AR and academic achievement in primary and secondary school. In the principal sections of the article, the development of AR skills is discussed along with the results of explicit efforts to train AR. The section on training effects includes a discussion of how motivation, culture, and gender influence student engagement in argument-based classroom activities.