Optimizing 3D Laser Scanning Parameters for Early-Stage Defect Detectability in Subgrade Condition Monitoring.

Terrestrial three-dimensional laser scanning, which plays a crucial role in engineering surveying for assessing the surface smoothness of highway embankments by providing a level of precision and continuous three-dimensional information that conventional measurement methods cannot achieve, is examined in this study through a series of field experiments designed to determine how station location, including sampling interval, station distance, and scanning angle, influences point cloud density, spatial distribution, laser reflectivity, and surface reconstruction accuracy, and the results demonstrate that point cloud quantity decreases as sampling interval, station distance, and scanning angle increase, that the resolution of reconstructed surface undulations diminishes accordingly, that scanning angle has only a limited effect on reconstruction fidelity, that locating the instrument as close as feasible to the target area and adopting a sampling interval of 0.03 m achieves an effective balance between measurement accuracy and operational efficiency, and that optimizing parameter selection by analyzing elevation deviations at key points enhances both data quality and model precision, thereby confirming the suitability of the proposed approach for reliable highway embankment condition monitoring.