Emerging tools to advance neuroethology in butterflies and moths.

Butterflies and moths have played historically important roles in developing our understanding of both ecology and evolutionary biology, and neuroethology. In both contexts, the diversity of behavioral strategies and specializations displayed by different Lepidoptera make them informative case studies. However, as in neuroscience more broadly, lepidopteran neuroethology has tended to focus on intricate functional studies within a small number of the most tractable species. In contrast, ecologists and evolutionary biologists have often taken a broader view, using phylogenetic and comparative approaches to extract general patterns of diversification, and to exploit the diversity of butterflies and moths to understand general evolutionary processes. Uniting these approaches and traditions has been restricted, largely due to technical challenges of working with unestablished study systems and a lack of resources beyond basic tools. Now, however, the prospects for broader comparative studies of the neural basis of behavior within a phylogenetic and/or ecological framework are increasingly positive. This is in large part due to the emergence of new molecular sequencing approaches and associated tools. These allow for the survey of cell types, the spatial location of their soma, development of new cell-type markers for targeted analyses, and quantification of the dynamic regulation of gene expression at a tissue or cell specific level. Results of these molecular methods can be combined with technical developments in free flying behavioral experiments in tethered animals that permit neural recordings of natural behavior, and functional genetics tools that can allow for more precise manipulation of these behaviors or the neural structures that support them. Here, we review these new approaches, their potential application, and discuss how we can use them to advance the development of new, integrative systems for studying the neural basis of behavior in butterflies and moths.