Evidence map›Paper›PMID 41266877›Full record

ArticleMolecular psychiatry2026

Within- and between-family genetic effects on educational achievement vary across countries and ages.

Alexandra Starr, Mirko Ruks, Alexandros Giannelis, Emily Willoughby, Oskar Pettersson, Charlotte K L Pahnke, Carlo Maj, Anastasia Andreas, Rafael Ahlskog, Louise Arseneault and 10 more

Abstract readTwin Study
PubMed Publisher
In one paragraph

Article in Molecular psychiatry, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 2 papers.

0numbers the graph read from it
0cells of the map it votes in
2citing papers in PubMed
–field-weighted citation impact
1 · What the graph read from it

What it found

Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.

The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.

2 · The registry

The trial behind it

Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.

Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.

3 · Its place in the literature

Who cites it

2 citing papers in PubMed.

  1. Article
  2. Article
4 · The record

Corrections and comments

PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.

5 · Who and what money

Authors and funding

20 authors.

Alexandra StarrDepartment of Education, University of York, York, UK. a.starr@vu.nl.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5282-797X
Mirko RuksDepartment of Sociology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3621-5084
Alexandros GiannelisDepartment of Psychology, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN, USA.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4587-0336
Emily WilloughbyDepartment of Psychology, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN, USA.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7559-1544
Oskar PetterssonDepartment of Government, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.ORCID http://orcid.org/0009-0006-6540-2790
Charlotte K L PahnkeInstitute of Human Genetics, University of Bonn, School of Medicine & University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany.
Carlo MajCentre for Human Genetics, University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany.
Anastasia AndreasDepartment of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany.
Rafael AhlskogDepartment of Government, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
Louise ArseneaultSocial, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2938-2191
Helen L FisherSocial, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4174-2126
Andreas J ForstnerInstitute of Human Genetics, University of Bonn, School of Medicine & University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1876-6368
Christian KandlerDepartment of Psychology, University of Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9175-235X
Matt McGueDepartment of Psychology, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN, USA.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5580-1433
Markus M NöthenInstitute of Human Genetics, University of Bonn, School of Medicine & University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8770-2464
Sven OskarssonDepartment of Government, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
Frank M SpinathDepartment of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany.
Scott VriezeDepartment of Psychology, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN, USA.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3861-7930
Jasmin WertzDepartment of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1332-8617
Sophie von StummDepartment of Education, University of York, York, UK.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0447-5471

Funding

Jacobs Foundation (personal fellowship)Vetenskapsrådet (Swedish Research Council) 2019-00244; 2023-01343
6 · The paper itself

Abstract

Polygenic score (PGS) predictions of educational achievement are sizeable at the population level. Yet, population-level PGS predictions are environmentally confounded, due to gene-environment correlations, assortative mating, and population stratification. This confounding complicates the interpretation and application of PGS predictions of educational achievement. Here, we charted the variability of PGS predictions in N = 8115 dizygotic twins from UK, US, Swedish, and German samples aged 7 to 19 years. Population-level PGS predictions of educational achievement ranged from β = 0.16 to β = 0.37 across ages and countries. Discerning within- and between-family level estimates, we found that 10 to 65% of the population-level PGS predictions were due to environmental confounding, of which 29 to 100% were accounted for by family socioeconomic status. Variability in within-family and population-level PGS predictions was largely unsystematic across countries' school systems (multi-tiered vs. comprehensive) and children's ages. Therefore, interpretations regarding the sources of environmental confounding effects on educational achievement remain, at present, speculative.

Indexed as

Academic SuccessAdolescentAge FactorsChildEducational StatusFamilyFemaleGene-Environment InteractionGermanyHumansMaleMultifactorial InheritanceSwedenTwins, DizygoticUnited KingdomUnited States

Identifiers

PMID41266877

What OpenQuestion holds

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Read underepoch 390

Registered trials

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Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.