ArticleCancer science2026
Transforming Growth Factor-β1 as a Biomarker of Malignant Behavior and PD-L1 Expression in Thymic Epithelial Tumors.
Article in Cancer science, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 1 paper.
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
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Who cites it
1 citing paper in PubMed.
- Pathobiology of thymic epithelial tumours and the treatment strategy based on immuno-oncological characteristics: a narrative review.Mediastinum (Hong Kong, China) · 2026Review
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Authors and funding
14 authors.
Funding
Abstract
The clinical significance and molecular mechanisms underlying tumor progression in thymic epithelial tumors (TETs) remain largely unclear. In this retrospective single-center study, we evaluated the prognostic value of transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1) and its relationship with programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression. A total of 92 patients with surgically resected TETs, including 79 thymomas and 13 thymic carcinomas, were included. Immunohistochemical analyses were performed to assess the expression of TGF-β1, PD-L1, phosphorylated Smad2 (pSmad2), and pSmad3. Associations between TGF-β1 expression and clinicopathological features were analyzed, and mechanistic interactions were investigated using two thymic carcinoma cell lines exposed to exogenous TGF-β1. High TGF-β1 expression was observed in 28% of patients and was significantly associated with advanced Masaoka stage (III/IV), shorter tumor doubling time (median 328 vs. 713 days, p = 0.042), and lower 5-year freedom from recurrence (FFR) rates (58.1% vs. 95.1%, p < 0.001, log-rank test). Coexpression of high TGF-β1 and PD-L1 was linked to the poorest prognosis (5-year FFR: 46.1%) and was identified as an independent predictor of recurrence (adjusted hazard ratio: 7.15; 95% confidence interval: 1.20-42.8). Immunohistochemically, TGF-β1 expression positively correlated with PD-L1 and pSmad2/3 expression. In vitro, TGF-β1 stimulation upregulated PD-L1 expression in a dose-dependent manner, accompanied by increased pSmad2/3 activation. These findings indicate that high TGF-β1 expression demarcates a biologically aggressive TET phenotype and, together with PD-L1, refines postoperative risk stratification, while its ability to drive PD-L1 via Smad signaling could support the blockade of these pathways as a potential therapeutic strategy.
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