Global expansion of lumpy skin disease: transmission trends, economic consequences, and preventive measures.

Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) is an emerging transboundary poxviral infection affecting cattle and buffaloes, caused by the Lumpy Skin Disease Virus (LSDV), a member of the Capripoxvirus genus. Characterized by fever, nodular dermatitis, lymphadenopathy, and production loss, the disease has evolved from a regionally confined threat in Africa to a global epizootic. While mortality remains below 5%, morbidity can reach 100% in affected herds, leading to severe economic disruption in livestock-dependent economies. Between 2005 and 2020, over 41,000 outbreaks were reported globally, nearly 30,000 in Africa, 8,800 in Asia, and 2,400 in Europe. The 2022 outbreak in India alone affected 2.4 million cattle and led to over 110,000 deaths, with estimated losses exceeding approximately $60 million USD. This review consolidates the current understanding of LSD's molecular virology, transmission dynamics, and global distribution. Mechanisms of transmission through direct contact, iatrogenic practices, and vector-mediated spread via mechanical and biological arthropods are reviewed in detail. Special emphasis is placed on mechanical transmission via Aedes aegypti, Stomoxys calcitrans, and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, as well as the emergence of recombinant LSDV strains resulting from interactions between vaccine and wild strains. Molecular diagnostics (PCR, LAMP, NGS) and existing control measures, including live-attenuated and homologous vaccines, are critically evaluated. The review highlights gaps in vector surveillance, cold-chain infrastructure, and diagnostic reach, especially in developing nations. It underscores the urgent need for region-specific vaccine strategies and integrated vector control. Addressing this neglected livestock disease is crucial not only for animal health but also for rural livelihoods, food security, and economic resilience.