Laying the groundwork for reptile welfare assessment in zoos and private keeping: A literature-based proposal.

With the increasing number and diversity of reptile species kept in zoological facilities and households, their welfare in captivity warrants structured and consistent evaluation. However, focused research on reptile welfare remains limited within the broader field of animal welfare science. Recognising such a gap, this study adopts an evidence-informed approach to review existing literature and proposes two conceptual welfare assessment frameworks - one for zoo settings and another for private keeping. We first identify the intended audiences for each framework and discuss common challenges reptile caretakers may face when conducting welfare assessments in different contexts. The frameworks are grounded in established principles from the Five Domains model and the European Welfare Quality® protocol, incorporating both resource- and animal-based indicators under the domains of Environment, Nutrition, Physical Health, and Behaviour. The design rationale is also explained to support future refinement. Finally, these conceptual frameworks are intended as a foundation for the development and validation of adaptable tools, capable of guiding improved husbandry practices and resource allocation for better welfare outcomes across a broad range of reptile taxa.