ArticlePublic health nutrition2025
How expensive is a healthy diet in Europe? Using Linear Programming as a standardised method for calculating European Food Reference Budgets.
Article in Public health nutrition, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
objectiveAccording to the principles of the European Pillar of Social Rights, everyone should be entitled to an adequate minimum income sufficient for a healthy diet. Studies show that food insecurity remains a concern in Europe, highlighting the need to determine budgets for adequate nutrition, known as Food Reference Budgets. Previous approaches, based on expert-designed food baskets or focus group discussions, are often limited by their normative nature and/or low representativeness.
designTo address these problems, this study explores Linear Programming as a novel method to calculate Food Reference Budgets for twenty-six EU member states. To analyse if Linear Programming could be an adequate tool to calculate future Food Reference Budgets, this method was used to design country-specific food baskets that align with consumption habits and healthy diet requirements. The food baskets were then priced at different levels to determine the cost for healthy diets in twenty-six European countries.
settingGermany.
participantsThe calculations are based on consumption data from the EU Household Budget Survey (EU-HBS) from 2015 (2010 for Malta, Portugal and Slovenia). For Germany, data from the national income and consumption survey was used instead, as German data was not included in the EU-HBS.
resultsThe results show a positive correlation between optimised healthy and current observed diets for most food groups, indicating that country-specific preferences are reflected in the optimised healthy food baskets. Nevertheless, to meet healthy diet requirements, consumption of vegetables, fruit, fish and dairy must increase compared with the current observed diets. At a lower price level, the Food Reference Budgets ranged from 2·38 to 5·71 €/day, depending on the country. With a low-price level (20th percentile), costs for healthy diet accounted for between 5·74 % of income in Luxembourg and 29·00 % in Romania, showing the large differences in affordability between countries.
conclusionOverall, it was concluded that Linear Programming could be a promising approach for determining uniform and comparable European Food Reference Budgets and should be discussed in the context of the EU Commission's efforts to modernise the European minimum income schemes.
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