Immunosensors for mycotoxin detection: techniques, applications and future directions.

Fungal contamination in food matrices poses significant health and economic challenges worldwide. Mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi like Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium, are primary contributors to food safety concerns. These toxins contaminate various food products, including grains, nuts, and dairy, leading to severe health risks such as immune suppression, liver cancer, and kidney damage. Traditional detection methods like chromatography and mass spectrometry are precise but limited by their high costs and operational complexity. Immunosensors offer a promising alternative, providing rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective detection of mycotoxins in diverse food matrices. These biosensors leverage antigen-antibody interactions and employ advanced signal transduction mechanisms, such as electrochemical, optical, and piezoelectric systems, to ensure specificity and accuracy. Recent advancements, including the integration of nanotechnology, machine learning and Internet of Things (IoT), have enhanced the sensitivity, portability, and real-time monitoring capabilities of immunosensors. Furthermore, the development of multiplexed sensors facilitates the simultaneous detection of multiple toxins, ensuring comprehensive food safety monitoring. Despite their potential, challenges remain in addressing regulatory standards, sensor stability, and matrix interference. Continued innovation in immunosensor technology, coupled with global standardization efforts, is vital for effective mycotoxin detection and food safety assurance, especially in resource-limited settings.