Biomimetic Carbon-Based Nanomaterials: From Design Strategies to Next-Generation Biosensing and Theranostic Applications.

Carbon-based nanomaterials (CBNs), including graphene oxide (GO), carbon nanospheres (CNSs), carbon nitrides (CNs), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon dots (CDs), nanoporous carbon, and nanocomposites, possess exceptional thermal, mechanical, electrical, and optical properties with highly versatile surface chemistries. Their tunable size, shape, and surface functionalities facilitate strong π-π interactions and semiconductor-like behavior, enabling efficient light absorption and intimate biomolecular interfacing. These attributes have positioned CBNs as leading candidates in biomedical engineering, inspiring biomimetic designs that integrate organic and inorganic functions within unified architectures. This review highlights recent advances in the use of CBNs for next-generation biosensing and theranostics. Approaches such as physicochemical engineering, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) origami templating, peptide- or enzyme-assisted assembly, polysaccharide anchoring, and lipid modification have enhanced their biocompatibility, selectivity, and catalytic activity. Innovations in fluorescence switching, aptamer-CNT photophysics, and spacer-controlled energy transfer enable ultra-sensitive detection of metal ions, metabolites, neurotransmitters, pathogens, drugs, and cancer biomarkers. Furthermore, integrated CBN-based platforms, including field-effect transistors and laser-scribed graphene electrodes, demonstrate capabilities for single-virus or single-cell diagnostics and responsive therapeutic intervention. Finally, translational challenges related to scalable synthesis, biosafety, regulatory harmonization, and public acceptance are discussed, and interdisciplinary strategies combining flexible electronics, organ-on-chip models, and AI-guided design to advance clinical translation of CBN-enabled precision diagnostics and personalized theranostics are proposed.