ArticleEnvironmental epidemiology (Philadelphia, Pa.)2025
Effects of projected increases in heat exposure on linguistic development in two-year-old children: A longitudinal modified treatment policy analysis.
Article in Environmental epidemiology (Philadelphia, Pa.), 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Background: Previous studies have demonstrated that in utero and early life heat exposure can influence neurodevelopment. However, to our knowledge, these investigations have not evaluated realistic counterfactual scenarios; instead, they have primarily relied on static, crude comparisons of extreme temperatures versus a reference temperature over an extended period. Methods: We employed the framework of longitudinal modified treatment policy to examine the impact of heat exposure during prenatal and postnatal periods on the linguistic development of two-year-old children in the Etude Longitudinale Française depuis l'Enfance birth cohort (N = 12,163). Heat exposure was defined as the number of periods when overall daytime and nighttime daily temperatures surpassed the 90th percentile (20.6, 27.5, and 15.3 °C, respectively) for at least two consecutive days. Context-specific counterfactual scenarios were constructed by increasing daily temperatures by 1, 2, or 3 °C, in line with projections from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change scenarios. Causal effects were estimated by comparing the population mean outcomes under hypothetical counterfactual scenarios vs. those actually observed in the data using a doubly robust estimation technique (targeted maximum likelihood estimation). A library of machine learning algorithms was employed to model the intricate relationships between covariates and both the exposure and outcome variables. Results: In counterfactual scenarios where daily temperature increases by one degree, mean differences in log-transformed population outcome did not reach statistical significance. A two-degree daily increase in nighttime temperature showed a decrease in linguistic development scores of 30% ( Conclusion: Our study revealed a negative impact of increased air temperatures on the linguistic development of 2-year-old children in counterfactual scenarios involving two- and three-degree temperature rises. The longitudinal modified treatment policy approach offers valuable new insights for causal inference in environmental epidemiology, particularly through its ability to directly assess the effects of anticipated, policy-relevant temperature changes.
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