CRISPR-Cas systems in combating antimicrobial resistance: which system to choose? A systematic review.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a growing threat to global public health, progressively compromising the efficacy of available antimicrobials. Technologies based on Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) have emerged as promising tools for controlling resistant pathogens, offering high specificity and versatility. However, a comprehensive and systematic synthesis of CRISPR strategies applied to AMR remains limited. From February 12, 2025, we conducted a systematic review of the PubMed, Embase, and Scopus databases, using the following search strategy: Population (resistant bacteria or plasmid-mediated resistance), Intervention (CRISPR, including variants such as CRISPR-Cas9, Cas3, Cas12, Cas13, and CRISPR interference [CRISPRi]), and Outcomes (bacterial resensitization or plasmid curing). The CRISPR-Cas9 system was the most frequently employed (75.7%), with conjugation identified as the primary delivery method. We identified the advantages and limitations of each system, highlighting CRISPRi and CRISPR-Cas13a as alternatives to overcome the constraints of direct genome editing. Delivery efficiency remains a central challenge, although nanocarrier- and bacteriophage-based methodologies show promising potential. We also propose a decision map that guides the selection of the most appropriate CRISPR-Cas system and delivery strategy, considering factors such as therapeutic objective, gene location, methodology efficiency, application environment, and clinical feasibility. This review provides an updated and structured synthesis of CRISPR strategies applied to AMR, emphasizing their potential translational and clinical applications. The findings can inform the development of CRISPR-based therapeutics, guide the design of preclinical studies, and support future strategies for combating multidrug-resistant infections in clinical settings.