ArticleBMC microbiology2025
Toxicity study of SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein expressed on Bacillus subtilis spores.
Article in BMC microbiology, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 2 papers.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
2 citing papers in PubMed.
- Targeting dengue through mucosal vaccination: the potential of NS1 and bacterial spore-based delivery platforms.Frontiers in immunology · 2026Review
- Recombinant Bacillus subtilis spores expressing SARS-CoV-2 spike protein induced humoral, mucosal, and cellular immunity in mice.Scientific reports · 2025Article
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
7 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
backgroundThe SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is the primary antigen used in most COVID-19 vaccines. To improve protection, especially at mucosal surfaces, a robust and safe delivery system capable of inducing both systemic and mucosal immunity is needed. Bacillus subtilis spores offer a promising platform due to their stability, safety, and capacity for protein display. A study to evaluate the potential acute oral toxicity of recombinant B. subtilis spores expressing SARS-CoV-2 spike proteins was undertaken.
resultsB. subtilis spore was used to express the SARS-CoV-2 S1 domain spike proteins during the bacterial sporulation. No in vitro cytotoxicity was observed when the spores were used to treat cells. BALB/c mice were given a single oral dose (5 × 10
conclusionThese findings suggest that the SARS-CoV-2 S1 domain spike proteins expressed on B. subtilis spores is well tolerated in mice when administered orally at a high dose. Findings from this study, hence, support further investigation of the recombinant bacterial spores expressing SARS-CoV-2 S1 domain spike proteins as an oral vaccine candidate against SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.