Estimation of sexual dimorphism of adult human mandibles of South Indian origin using non-metric parameters and machine learning classification algorithms.

The mandible is one of the most reliable in sex determination in forensic anthropology. The shape of the mandible provides valuable information regarding the male and female distinctions. Machine learning algorithms are widely used for various applications due to their accuracy and reliability, extending their application in biological profiling. This study aims to estimate sexual dimorphism using various machine-learning algorithms based on non-metric features of the mandible. This study uses four machine-learning algorithms—k-nearest neighbors, decision tree, support vector machines, and random forest to determine sex based on 12 mandibular non-metric parameters. The data was collected from three medical institutes in Karnataka, India, involving a sample of 156 individuals. Random Forest consistently achieved the highest Jaccard Index (0.86), F1 score (0.92), and accuracy (0.92) across both SMOTE and Random Over-Sampling (ROS) methods, showing stable and robust performance. ROS improved balanced accuracy for KNN, Decision Tree, and SVM by up to 9.7%. Feature importance analysis highlighted N6 Gonial angle and N12 Flexure ramal post border as key predictors. Statistical tests found no significant accuracy differences among models. Female specificity remained lower across all models. This study offers insights into employing machine learning algorithms for sex identification using non-metric observations of the mandible.