ArticleBMC public health2025
Individual and area-level factors associated with depression in indonesia: a multilevel analysis using the 2018 national basic health research.
Article in BMC public health, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 2 papers.
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Who cites it
2 citing papers in PubMed.
- Income, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms in Indonesia: a two-year cross-lagged panel analysis of socioeconomic gradients.Frontiers in public health · 2026Article
- Mental distress and climate-related coastal hazards: Evidence from national studies in Indonesia.The journal of climate change and healthArticle
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Authors and funding
18 authors.
Funding
Abstract
backgroundDepression has become the leading cause of disease burden in low- and middle-income countries. However, evidence on the determinants of depression in those countries has been limited. This study aims to identify the factors in individual and area levels associated with depression using existing nationally representative data in Indonesia.
methodsMultilevel mixed-effects logistic regression models were performed on various national-scale Indonesian cross-sectional surveys and Indonesian Population Census to estimate those associations. We included adults aged 18 + who participated in the National Basic Health Research 2018 in this study. Depression was measured using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI). Individual level variables include demographic characteristics, socioeconomic status, history of diseases, health behaviours, healthcare accessibility, and familial history of psychosis. District-level variables include the availability of health providers and professionals, regional gross domestic product, and the happiness index.
resultsWe found that individual-level factors, i.e., education, occupation, marital status, economic status, comorbidities, health behaviours, and difficulty with healthcare access were associated with the risk of depression. Happiness index as district-level factor, is related to the odds of depression. District-level factors, including the availability of general practitioners and mental health professionals and the density of healthcare providers, had no significant association with depression. The measured variables provided modest explanatory value overall.
conclusionIndividual-level factors are associated with depression among adults in Indonesia. Among the district level factors, only happiness index is related to depression. These results strengthen previous studies which stated determinants at the individual level are an important factor in depression. Therefore, effective prevention programs in mental health need to target both individuals and families.
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