Cultural differences in self-reported empathy in Indonesia.

Empathy, comprising cognitive and affective components, is linked to numerous individual and societal benefits, including enhanced well-being and prosocial behaviours. However, empathy might also hinder societal flourishing due to biases resulting from factors like social closeness. This study explored cultural variation in empathy within Indonesia, a non-WEIRD context with diverse ethnicities, religions, and social structures. We hypothesized that cultural factors such as ethnicity, primary residence, religious beliefs, and social class would predict empathy differences. Using standardised questionnaires, we assessed helping behaviour, situational empathic concern, directed empathic concern, and personal distress in 2869 Indonesian adults. Regression analyses revealed that gender, age, ethnicity, residence, religion, and perceived social class significantly predicted empathy components. Notably, Javanese and Sundanese participants reported higher empathy levels than Minangkabau, and Muslims showed more empathy than other religious groups. Additionally, higher perceived social status correlated with increased helping behaviour and emotional empathy, but it also correlated with lower personal distress. These findings highlight the complex interplay of cultural factors in shaping empathy, with implications for understanding socioemotional dynamics across diverse societies.