Evidence map›Paper›PMID 41018705›Full record

ArticleOpen forum infectious diseases2025

Global Prevalence of Long COVID, Its Subtypes, and Risk Factors: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Yiren Hou, Tian Gu, Zhouchi Ni, Xu Shi, Megan L Ranney, Bhramar Mukherjee

Abstract read
PubMed Full text at PMC Publisher
In one paragraph

Article in Open forum infectious diseases, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 87 papers, 5 of them syntheses that pooled it.

0numbers the graph read from it
0cells of the map it votes in
87citing papers in PubMed, 5 pooled it
–field-weighted citation impact
1 · What the graph read from it

What it found

Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.

The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.

2 · The registry

The trial behind it

Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.

Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.

3 · Its place in the literature

Who cites it

87 citing papers in PubMed, 5 syntheses or guidelines pooled it.

  1. Pooled it
  2. Pooled it
  3. Pooled it
  4. Pooled it
  5. Pooled it
  6. Trial
  7. Trial
  8. Human brain matters: Navigating the neuropathology of COVID-19.Brain pathology (Zurich, Switzerland) · 2026
    Review
  9. Review
  10. Rehabilitation needs of long COVID patients in British Columbia.PM & R : the journal of injury, function, and rehabilitation · 2026
    Article
  11. Article
  12. Article
  13. Observational
  14. Prevalence of Long COVID inJournal of clinical tuberculosis and other mycobacterial diseases · 2026
    Article
  15. Article
  16. Article
  17. Review
  18. Article
  19. Article
  20. Article

27 more citing papers are in PubMed but not listed here.

4 · The record

Corrections and comments

5 · Who and what money

Authors and funding

6 authors.

Yiren HouDepartment of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0422-4268
Tian GuDepartment of Biostatistics, Columbia Mailman School of Public Health, New York, New York, USA.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0856-8843
Zhouchi NiDepartment of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
Xu ShiDepartment of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8566-9552
Megan L RanneyDepartment of Health Policy and Management, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8450-9642
Bhramar MukherjeeDepartment of Biostatistics, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0118-4561

Funding

Enhanced Cancer Risk Predictions through Robust Multi-Source Data IntegrationR01CA296289 · NCI · COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY HEALTH SCIENCES · PI Tian Gu · 2025 to 2026
$859k
NCI NIH HHS R01 CA296289
6 · The paper itself

Abstract

Background: This mega-systematic review evaluated the global prevalence of long COVID and its subtypes and symptoms, and assessed the effects of risk factors for long COVID. Methods: Studies published from 5 July 2021 to 29 May 2024 were searched in PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science, with supplemental updates on 23 July 2024. Data were pooled using a random-effects framework with DerSimonian-Laird estimator. Risk of bias analysis was conducted. Results: A total of 429 studies were meta-analyzed. The global pooled long COVID prevalence was 36% (95% confidence interval [CI], 33%-40%) with 144 contributing studies. The highest prevalence rates were observed in South America (51% [95% CI, 35%-66%]). The prevalence of long COVID persisted over time, with 35% (95% CI, 31%-39%) at <1 year of follow-up and 46% (95% CI, 37%-57%) at 1-2 years. The most prevalent subtypes were respiratory (20% [95% CI, 14%-28%]) estimated from 31 studies, general fatigue (20% [95% CI, 18%-23%]) from 119 studies, psychological (18% [95% CI, 11%-28%]) from 10 studies, and neurological (16% [95% CI, 8%-30%]) from 23 studies. The 3 strongest risk factors were being unvaccinated for COVID-19 (pooled odds ratio [OR], 2.09 [95% CI, 1.55-2.81]) meta-analyzed from 7 studies, infections from pre-Omicron variants (OR, 1.74 [95% CI, 1.40-2.17]) from 6 studies, and female sex (OR, 1.56 [95% CI, 1.32-1.84]) from 33 studies. Conclusions: Long COVID is globally prevalent after a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection, highlighting a continuing health challenge. The heterogeneity of estimates across populations argues the need for well-designed follow-up studies that use consistent measures and are globally representative.

Indexed as

epidemiologyinfectious diseaselong COVIDpostacute sequelae of COVID-19

Identifiers

PMID41018705
PMCPMC12461872

What OpenQuestion holds

Textmetadata
LicenceCC BY-NC-ND
Read underepoch 390

Registered trials

None linked

Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.