Estimation of 3D Ground Reaction Force and 2D Center of Pressure Using Deep Learning and Load Cells Across Various Gait Conditions.

Traditional force plate-based systems offer high measurement precision but are limited to laboratory settings, restricting their use in real-world environments. To address this, we propose a method for estimating a three-axis ground reaction force (GRF) and two-axis center of pressure (CoP) using a shoe embedded with three uniaxial load cells. The estimation was conducted under five gait conditions: straight walking, turning, uphill, downhill, and running. Data were collected from 40 healthy young adults. Four deep-learning models-Fully Connected Neural Network (FCNN), Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), Sequence-to-Sequence Long Short-Term Memory (Seq2Seq-LSTM), and Transformer-were evaluated. Among them, Seq2Seq-LSTM and CNN achieved the highest performance in predicting both GRF and CoP. However, the medio-lateral (ML) components showed lower accuracy than the vertical and anterior-posterior directions. In slope conditions, particularly for vertical GRF, relatively higher root mean-square error (RMSE) values were observed. Despite some variation across gait types, predicted values showed high agreement with measurements. Compared with previous studies, the proposed method achieved comparable or better performance with a minimal sensor setup. These findings highlight the feasibility of accurate GRF and CoP estimation in diverse gait scenarios and support the potential for real-world applications. Future work will focus on sensor optimization and broader population validation.