Evidence map›Paper›PMID 40968482›Full record

SynthesisJournal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines2026

Have parenting programs for disruptive child behavior become less effective?

Patty Leijten, G J Melendez-Torres, Sophia Backhaus, Frances Gardner, Annabeth P Groenman, Tycho J Dekkers, Barbara J van den Hoofdakker, Liina Björg Laas Sigurðardóttir, Danni Liu, Marjolein Luman and 8 more

Abstract readMeta-AnalysisReview
PubMed Full text at PMC Publisher
In one paragraph

Synthesis in Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 1 paper.

0numbers the graph read from it
0cells of the map it votes in
1citing papers in PubMed
–field-weighted citation impact
1 · What the graph read from it

What it found

Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.

The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.

2 · The registry

The trial behind it

Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.

Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.

3 · Its place in the literature

Who cites it

1 citing paper in PubMed.

  1. Article
4 · The record

Corrections and comments

PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.

5 · Who and what money

Authors and funding

18 authors.

Patty LeijtenResearch Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0002-8828-4049
G J Melendez-TorresFaculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK.ORCID 0000-0002-9823-4790
Sophia BackhausResearch Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0002-6178-2507
Frances GardnerDepartment of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.ORCID 0000-0001-7508-7348
Annabeth P GroenmanResearch Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0002-8394-6605
Tycho J DekkersAccare Child Study Center, Groningen, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0001-8572-5606
Barbara J van den HoofdakkerAccare Child Study Center, Groningen, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0001-9570-9976
Liina Björg Laas SigurðardóttirDepartment of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.ORCID 0000-0001-6234-5950
Danni LiuResearch Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0003-2817-534X
Marjolein LumanLevvel, Academic Center for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0002-1539-2831
Lara MansurResearch Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.ORCID 0009-0003-4736-5285
Merlin NieterauResearch Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0003-4815-5629
Saskia van der OordFaculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.ORCID 0000-0003-2771-0187
Geertjan OverbeekResearch Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0002-3812-6480
Constantina PsyllouAccare Child Study Center, Groningen, The Netherlands.ORCID 0009-0000-2866-6881
Karen RienksResearch Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0003-0171-8893
Susanne SchulzResearch Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.ORCID 0000-0003-1593-3105
John R WeiszDepartment of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-5560-6814

Funding

Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek VI.Vidi.201.065ZonMw 636320007
6 · The paper itself

Abstract

backgroundBehavioral parenting programs have been exhaustively studied over the past five decades. We used this wealth of research to examine how estimates of parenting program effects have evolved over time, and if any time trends in effect estimates can be explained by trial, sample, or intervention characteristics.

methodsWe based our meta-analysis on a systematic search of 22 international and regional databases, gray literature, and 4 trial registries for randomized controlled trials of behavioral parenting programs.

resultsWe identified 244 eligible trials (1,100 effect sizes; 28,916 families) from 36 countries. Parenting program effects initially reduced and then stabilized. More recent trials used more rigorous methods (e.g., more active control conditions and less risk of bias), samples that were generally older and included more girls, and evaluated interventions that on average had fewer sessions, were more often delivered by independent staff and made less use of time-out. However, none of these developments explained the initial reduction in effect size estimates during the first decades.

conclusionsOur findings suggest that estimates of parenting program effects are currently stable: Effect sizes are no longer reducing but there is also no evidence of increases over time. Experimentation with the content, delivery, and personalization of parenting programs is needed to identify ways to increase program effects.

Indexed as

Behavior TherapyChild Behavior DisordersOutcome Assessment, Health CareParentingProblem BehaviorChildHumansBehavioral parenting programdisruptive child behaviormeta‐analysissystematic reviewtime trends

Identifiers

PMID40968482
PMCPMC12699127

What OpenQuestion holds

Textmetadata
LicenceCC BY
Read underepoch 390

Registered trials

None linked

Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.