ArticleInternational journal of nanomedicine2025
Comparison of the Cytotoxicity, Internalization and Anti-Cancer Drug Delivery Efficacy of Nature Killer Cell Derived Nanovesicles and Extracellular Vesicles.
Article in International journal of nanomedicine, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 4 papers.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
4 citing papers in PubMed.
- Extracellular Vesicles as Nanoparticle Delivery Vectors in Cancer Therapy.Nano letters · 2026Review
- Quercetin Delivered by Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes Improves Liver Fibrosis via the PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway.ACS omega · 2026Article
- NK cell vesicles-based nanoplatform loaded with sorafenib synergizing ferroptosis and antitumor immunity against hepatocellular carcinoma.Journal of nanobiotechnology · 2026Article
- Cell-Derived Nanocarriers for Monocyte-Mediated Therapeutic Delivery: Concept and Challenges.Yonsei medical journal · 2026Review
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
15 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Purpose: Natural killer (NK) cell-derived extracellular vesicles (NK-EVs) have garnered significant research interest in the field of tumor immunotherapy. However, the large-scale production of NK-EVs remains a major challenge, limiting their clinical application. This study aims to develop a simple and efficient method for the preparation of NK cell-derived nanovesicles (NK-NVs) and to evaluate their cytotoxicity and drug delivery potential. Methods: In this study, we efficiently produced large quantities of NK-NVs by extruding NK cells. We conducted comprehensive characterization and protein profiling analyses of NK cells, NK-EVs, and NK-NVs. The cytotoxicity and cellular uptake of NK-NVs were evaluated, and the internalization mechanism was explored. To assess the drug delivery capability, doxorubicin (DOX) was loaded into NK-NVs (NK-NVs-DOX) using various loading strategies, including co-incubation, sonication, extrusion, and electroporation. We thoroughly evaluated the drug loading efficiency, particle size, stability, and cytotoxicity of NK-NVs-DOX. Results: Extrusion-derived NK-NVs exhibited a remarkable 402.18-fold increase in particle yield and a 325.76-fold enhancement in protein yield compared to ultracentrifugation-isolated NK-EVs, while maintaining comparable morphology and EV-specific markers (Alix, TSG101, CD9). Functionally, NK-NVs induced delayed cytotoxicity against cancer cells via caveolin-mediated endocytosis, selectively sparing normal cells. Proteomic analysis revealed that NK-NVs shared 7,366 proteins with NK cells, surpassing the 5,326 proteins found in NK-EVs. Furthermore, extrusion-optimized NK-NVs-DOX demonstrated pH-sensitive drug release (30% higher at pH 5.5), significantly enhanced anti-cancer effects across four cancer cell lines, and stable drug retention for up to 28 days at 4°C, highlighting their promising therapeutic potential. Conclusion: Extrusion-derived NK-NVs offer a low-cost, rapid, and high-yield production method while selectively inducing cytotoxicity in cancer cells. Their pH-sensitive drug release enhances drug loading stability. These advantages establish NK-NVs as a promising and scalable platform for tumor immunotherapy and drug delivery with significant clinical potential.
Indexed as
Identifiers
What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.