SynthesisNeurological sciences : official journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology2025
Neuroglial biomarkers in autoimmune encephalitis: advances in diagnosis, prognosis, and pathophysiological insights.
Synthesis in Neurological sciences : official journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 2 papers.
What it found
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
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Who cites it
2 citing papers in PubMed.
- Diagnosing autoimmune encephalitis in psychiatry: clinical recommendations and unresolved challenges from the GENERATE network.Molecular psychiatry · 2026Review
- Multi-omics integration in autoimmune encephalitis: from novel biomarker discovery to precision therapeutic strategies.Frontiers in immunology · 2026Review
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
7 authors.
Funding
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Abstract
Autoimmune encephalitis (AE) presents with a diverse spectrum of neuropsychiatric symptoms, often leading to diagnostic challenges and delays in treatment. Neuroglial biomarkers may improve AE diagnosis, disease monitoring, and prognostication. This review examines the diagnostic and prognostic value of fluid biomarkers in AE, focusing on markers of neuroaxonal damage, synaptic dysfunction, astroglial activation, and amyloid metabolism. A systematic search of PubMed, Cochrane, and Scopus databases (from inception until November 26, 2024) was performed. Of the 1,270 articles screened, 31 studies met the inclusion criteria. Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis was the most frequently investigated subtype (70% of studies). Neurofilament light chain (NfL) was the most widely analyzed biomarker, with elevated levels in both cerebrospinal fluid and serum, aiding in the differentiation of AE from primary psychiatric disorders and in the early identification of checkpoint inhibitor-related neurotoxicity. NfL and total tau (t-Tau) were consistently higher in paraneoplastic than non-paraneoplastic AE. Despite some variability across studies, amyloid-beta (Aβ) 42 and Aβ40, as well as phosphorylated tau (p-Tau), were altered in AE compared to controls, although generally to a lesser extent than in Alzheimer's disease. Higher baseline NfL and YKL-40 correlated with disease severity, and NfL reductions post-immunotherapy were linked to treatment response. Despite consistent heterogeneities in sampling timing, these findings highlight the potential of neuroglial biomarkers as diagnostic and prognostic tools in AE. Future studies should explore longitudinal biomarker dynamics and refine their clinical applications.
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Registered trials
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