ReviewInternational journal of molecular sciences2025
Understanding Sex Differences in Autoimmune Diseases: Immunologic Mechanisms.
Review in International journal of molecular sciences, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 22 papers.
What it found
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
22 citing papers in PubMed.
- Characteristics of the Health-Associated Oral Microbiome in Young Nonhuman Primates.Molecular oral microbiology · 2026Article
- Psychological Stress and Anxiety in Autoimmune Diseases: A Cross-Sectional Case-Control Study.Healthcare (Basel, Switzerland) · 2026Article
- Sex Differences in Mitochondrial Function: Endocrine Regulation, Immunometabolic Signaling, and Implications for Health and Disease.International journal of molecular sciences · 2026Review
- Neurological involvement and pregnancy outcomes in autoimmune disease: mechanisms, clinical implications, and research gaps.Rheumatology international · 2026Review
- Correlation Between Systemic Inflammation Response Index and Systemic Immune-Inflammation Index and Disease Activity of Lupus Nephritis in Children.Children (Basel, Switzerland) · 2026Article
- Immunosenescence in Human Disease: Mechanistic Insights and Therapeutic Opportunities.Biomolecules & therapeutics · 2026Review
- Longitudinally Extensive Transverse Myelitis in Autoimmune Connective Tissue Diseases: A Comprehensive Review.Cureus · 2026Review
- The X Factor in Immunity: Sex Differences Shaped by the X Chromosome.Immunological reviews · 2026Review
- Article
- Nutritional Risk in Older Adults with Rheumatoid Arthritis: Sex-Specific Patterns and Clinical Implications of the Prognostic Nutritional Index.Nutrients · 2026Observational
- Neuroinflammation and the Female Brain: Sex-Specific Mechanisms Underlying Mood Disorders and Stress Vulnerability.Life (Basel, Switzerland) · 2026Review
- Sex-specific reporting patterns and onset timing of immune-related adverse events associated with nivolumab and pembrolizumab: a dual-database pharmacovigilance analysis.Frontiers in immunology · 2026Article
- Association of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, TNF-α, and IFN-α With Severe Pediatric COVID-19 and Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome.Biomarker insights · 2026Article
- The impact of X chromosome inactivation on human health.Frontiers in genetics · 2026Review
- Genomic Instability and Clonal Hematopoiesis in the Deep-Space Environment: The Role of Sex-Chromosome Asymmetry and High-LET Radiation.Current stem cell reports · 2026Article
- Sex differences in vaccine-induced immunity in mice immunized with integrase-defective lentiviral vector delivering the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein.Frontiers in immunology · 2026Article
- Genetic burden across core genes of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway is associated with susceptibility to microscopic polyangiitis: a Chinese cohort study.Frontiers in immunology · 2026Article
- Dissecting age-specific genetic architecture of vitiligo through integrative Post-GWAS analysis.Frontiers in immunology · 2026Article
- Immune Checkpoint Dysregulation in Autoimmune Disorders: A Narrative Review of Therapeutic Implications.Cureus · 2025Review
- Detection rate, demographic associations and clinical implications of anti-C1q antibody elevations across diverse disease states.Lupus science & medicine · 2025Article
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
4 authors.
Funding
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus and Sjögren's syndrome show pronounced sex disparities in prevalence, severity, and clinical outcomes, with females disproportionately affected. Emerging evidence highlights sex-based differences in immune and inflammatory responses as key contributors to this bias. Genetic factors-including sex chromosomes, skewed X chromosome inactivation, and sex-biased microRNAs-as well as sex hormones and pregnancy modulate gene expression and immune cell function in a sex-specific manner. Additionally, sex hormone-dependent epigenetic modifications influence the transcription of critical immune regulators. These genetic and hormonal factors collectively shape the activation, differentiation, and effector functions of diverse immune cell types. Environmental factors-including infections, gut microbiota, environmental chemicals and pollutants, and lifestyle behaviors such as diet, smoking, UV exposure, alcohol and caffeine intake, physical activity, and circadian rhythms-further modulate immune function and autoimmune disease pathogenesis in a sex-dependent manner. Together, these mechanisms contribute to the heightened risk and distinct clinical features of autoimmunity in females. A deeper understanding of sex-biased immune regulation will facilitate the identification of novel biomarkers, enable patient stratification, and inform the development of sex-specific diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for autoimmune diseases.
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Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.