Enhancing the gravity model for commuters: Time-and-spatial-structure-based improvements in Japan's metropolitan areas.

Metropolitan commuting flows reveal crucial insights into urban spatial dynamics; however, existing mobility models often struggle to capture the complex, heterogeneous patterns within these regions. This study introduces the Spatially Segregated Urban Gravity (SSUG) model, a novel approach that synergistically combines urban classification with gravity-based flow prediction to address this limitation. The SSUG model's key innovations include: (1) demonstrating the existence of different scaling laws in metropolitan areas, (2) identifying the existence of data-driven bifurcation that delineates urban-suburban commuting behaviors, (3) employing scaling exponents to reveal spatial segregation, and (4) leveraging high-resolution Global Positioning System (GPS) data for precise deterrence factor measurement. This multifaceted approach enables simultaneous improvement in flow prediction accuracy and robust urban functional classification. Empirical validation across six diverse Japanese metropolitan areas-Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Fukuoka, Sendai, and Sapporo-demonstrates the SSUG model's superior predictive power compared to traditional gravity models. Our results unveil previously undetected patterns of spatial structure and functional segregation, particularly highlighting the divergent commuting dynamics between urban cores and suburban peripheries. The SSUG model's capacity to discern fine-grained urban-suburban differences while accurately forecasting commuting flows offers transformative potential for evidence-based urban planning. By providing a more nuanced understanding of metropolitan mobility patterns, this study equips policymakers with a powerful tool for optimizing transportation networks, refining land-use strategies, and fostering sustainable urban development in increasingly complex metropolitan landscapes.