The interaction effect of pedagogical agent and emotional feedback on effective learning: a 2 × 2 factorial experiment in online formative assessment.

Introduction: To address the challenge of face-to-face communication in online learning, integrating pedagogical agents and emotional feedback has been proposed as viable solutions. However, research on their impact during formative assessments remains limited. Methods: This study therefore conducted a 2 (Pedagogical agent: present vs. absent) × 2 (Emotional feedback: present vs. absent) experimental study using an online learning system to explore their effects on learning performance. Results: Results indicated that pedagogical agents had a slightly negative influence on transfer scores, while emotional feedback significantly boosted engagement. When both were combined, learners exhibited the highest motivation, although this did not significantly enhance emotional perception or performance and slightly reduced transfer scores. Notably, the use of these tools shortened learning duration. Discussion: These findings suggest that educators should exercise caution when designing pedagogical agents in online formative assessment environments to avoid potential distractions during the learning process. Meanwhile, the integration of emotional feedback may contribute to creating a more humanized digital learning atmosphere, thereby supporting learners in their online learning experience. Overall, this study provides crucial insights into the complex effects of these tools on learning in computer-based online formative assessments, guiding future design and application.