Observational studyJournal of clinical nursing2026
How Often Are Hospitalised Children Physically Restrained During Painful and Stressful Procedures?
Observational study in Journal of clinical nursing, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Authors and funding
6 authors.
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Abstract
aimTo analyse the incidence of physical restraint use during painful and stressful procedures in hospitalised children, as well as the factors associated with its use.
designObservational, longitudinal and prospective study.
methodsChildren aged between 28 days and 10 years in a public hospital in Brazil were each observed undergoing clinical procedures over a 6-h period. Data were collected on demographics, observed pain using validated measures, stress behaviours, and the use of physical restraint. Descriptive and inferential analyses were performed. National ethical guidelines were strictly followed.
results1210 procedures were observed on 75 children, including 351 painful and 859 stressful procedures. Physical restraint was used in 270 (22.3%) procedures; of these, 131 (48.5%) were painful procedures and 139 (51.5%) were stressful procedures. In stressful procedures, at least one stress-related behaviour was observed before the initiation of physical restraint. Factors associated with increased use of physical restraint during painful procedures were younger children, with higher levels of care dependency, higher pain scores during procedures, and those who underwent intravenous medication administration, airway suctioning, tube insertion, and fixation changes. In stressful procedures, the factors associated with higher use of physical restraint were younger children, hospitalisation due to respiratory conditions, those who underwent physical examinations, inhaled medication, and nasal lavage; and the child's expression of stress behaviour before the procedure starts. Predictors of physical restraint included morning period, younger age group, male or female sex, and transfer from the Intensive Care Unit.
conclusionA high incidence of physical restraints was observed across multiple painful and stressful procedures performed within a 6-h period, associated with variables related to both the child's characteristics and the procedures. IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PROFESSION AND/OR PATIENT CARE: This study aims to encourage reconsideration of the frequent use of physical restraint in paediatric procedures, calling for a reframing of its application as an unquestioned practice toward an approach that prioritises protecting and respecting a child as a subject with needs, rights, and desires. REPORTING
methodStrengthening the Reporting of Observational studies in Epidemiology (STROBE).
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