'We're not all the same'-how heterogeneity among smallholder tree-crop farmers in Ghana generates different degrees of food insecurity.

Agricultural policies promoting smallholder participation in global markets for high-value commodities assume benefits for household food and nutrition security (FNS). However, existing literature often overlooks differences among smallholders. Using surveys, life interviews, and focus groups, this study applies the Household Access Food Insecurity Scale and dietary diversity scores to examine how household heterogeneity among Ghanaian tree-crop farmers affects FNS. Beyond standard FNS dimensions, we incorporate food sovereignty aspects like autonomy, cultural preferences, and sustainability. Only 47% of households were food secure, with significantly higher rates among those growing multiple tree crops (58%) and lower rates among landless farmers (30%). Households dependent on a single tree crop and landless households experience seasonal food insecurity due to low incomes. Interestingly, even the most economically secure multiple tree-crop households do not always achieve better dietary diversity, as spending choices influence nutrient intake. Cultural preferences impact FNS, particularly for older generations, while younger generations exhibit shifting dietary trends, highlighting the importance of cultural and generational factors. Intercropping is key to future FNS, given the widespread conversion of food-crop lands to tree-crop production. However, intercropping becomes difficult as tree crops mature, and excessive agrochemical use threatens sustainability and food safety. These findings underscore the need to explore intercropping in oil palm plantations, promote livelihood diversification, and raise awareness of more inclusive and sustainable farming practices. Future FNS research, policy, and practice must account for household heterogeneity and specific production contexts.