Evidence map›Paper›PMID 40742992›Full record

ArticleProceedings. Biological sciences2025

The influence of human presence and footprint on animal space use in US national parks.

Kaitlyn M Gaynor, Forest P Hayes, Kezia Manlove, Nathan Galloway, John F Benson, Michael J Cherry, Clinton W Epps, Robert J Fletcher, John Orrock, Justine A Smith and 58 more

Abstract read
PubMed Full text at PMC Publisher
In one paragraph

Article in Proceedings. Biological sciences, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 4 papers.

0numbers the graph read from it
0cells of the map it votes in
4citing papers in PubMed
–field-weighted citation impact
1 · What the graph read from it

What it found

Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.

The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.

2 · The registry

The trial behind it

Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.

Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.

3 · Its place in the literature

Who cites it

4 citing papers in PubMed.

  1. Article
  2. Article
  3. Article
  4. Article
4 · The record

Corrections and comments

PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.

5 · Who and what money

Authors and funding

68 authors.

Kaitlyn M GaynorDepartment of Zoology and Botany, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada.ORCID 0000-0002-5747-0543
Forest P HayesFish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-7216-5360
Kezia ManloveWildland Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-7200-5236
Nathan GallowayBiological Resources Division, National Park Service Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Directorate, Fort Collins, CO 80525, USA.
John F BensonSchool of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA.
Michael J CherryTexas A&M University Kingsville Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA.
Clinton W EppsFisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
Robert J FletcherDepartment of Zoology, Conservation Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3QZ, UK.
John OrrockIntegrative Biology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
Justine A SmithWildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
Christina AielloFisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
Jerrold L BelantFisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.ORCID 0000-0001-7021-1338
Joel BergerFish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
Mark BielGlacier National Park, National Park Service, West Glacier, MT 59936, USA.
Jill BrightRegion IV, Arizona Game and Fish Department, Phoenix, AZ 85086, USA.
Joseph BumpFisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-4369-7990
Michael BurchettMojave National Preserve, National Park Service, Barstow, CA 92311, USA.
Carson ButlerGrand Teton National Park, National Park Service, Moose, WY 83012, USA.
Jennifer CarlsonCalifornia Department of Fish and Wildlife, Redding, CA 96001, USA.
Eric K ColeUS Fish and Wildlife Service, Jackson, WY 83001, USA.
Neal DarbyMojave National Preserve, National Park Service, Barstow, CA 92311, USA.
Erin DegutisNational Park Service, Yosemite National Park, CA 95389, USA.
Sarah DeweyGrand Teton National Park, National Park Service, Moose, WY 83012, USA.
Pete FiguraCalifornia Department of Fish and Wildlife, West Sacramento, CA 95605, USA.
Thomas D GableFisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA.ORCID 0000-0002-0917-8951
Jeff GagnonWildlife Contracts Branch, Arizona Game and Fish Department, Phoenix, AZ 85086, USA.
Danielle M GlassCalifornia Department of Fish and Wildlife, Bishop, CA 93514, USA.
Jennifer R GreenDepartment of Geography, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada.ORCID 0000-0002-8433-3405
Kerry GuntherNational Park Service, Yellowstone National Park, WY 82190, USA.
Mark A HaroldsonNorthern Rocky Mountain Science Center, Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team, U.S. Geological Survey, Bozeman, MT 59715, USA.
Kent R HerseyUtah Division of Wildlife Resources, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, USA.
Brandon P HoltonScience and Resource Management, National Park Service, Grand Canyon, AZ 86023, USA.
Austin T HomkesFisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN 55108, USA.
Sarah R HoyCollege of Forest Resources and Environmental Science, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA.
Debra HughsonMojave National Preserve, National Park Service, Barstow, CA 92311, USA.
Kyle JolyYukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve, National Park Service, Fairbanks, AK 99709, USA.
Ryan LeahyCalifornia Department of Fish and Wildlife, Rancho Cordova, CA 95670, USA.
Caitlin Lee-RoneyNational Park Service, Yosemite National Park, CA 95389, USA.
Rob LesterNational Park Service, Yosemite National Park, CA 95389, USA.
Dan MacNultyWildland Resources, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA.
Michael MagnusonResource Management, Lassen Volcanic National Park, National Park Service, Mineral, CA 96063, USA.
Daniel MartinNational Park Service Midwest Region, Omaha, NE 68102, USA.
Rachel MazurNational Park Service Northeast Region, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
Seth MooreGrand Portage Band of Lake Superior Chippewa, Grand Portage, MN 55605, USA.
Elizabeth K OrningCollege of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA.
Katie PatrickNational Park Service, Yosemite National Park, CA 95389, USA.
Rolf O PetersonCollege of Forest Resources and Environmental Science, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA.
Lynette PotvinIsle Royale National Park, National Park Service, Houghton, MI 49931, USA.
Paige R PrenticeCalifornia Department of Fish and Wildlife, West Sacramento, CA 95605, USA.
Seth P D RileySanta Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, National Park Service, Thousand Oaks, CA 91362, USA.
Mark C RomanskiIsle Royale National Park, National Park Service, Houghton, MI 49931, USA.
Annette RougUtah Division of Wildlife Resources, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, USA.
Jeff A SikichSanta Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, National Park Service, Thousand Oaks, CA 91362, USA.
Nova SimpsonEnvironmental Services, Nevada Department of Transportation, Carson City, NV 89712, USA.
William SloanDeath Valley National Park, National Park Service, Death Valley, CA 92328, USA.
Douglas W SmithYellowstone Center for Resources, Yellowstone National Park, WY 82190, USA.
Mathew SorumYukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve, National Park Service, Fairbanks, AK 99709, USA.
Scott SpragueWildlife Contracts Branch, Arizona Game and Fish Department, Phoenix, AZ 85086, USA.
Daniel StahlerYellowstone Center for Resources, Yellowstone National Park, WY 82190, USA.
John StephensonGrand Teton National Park, National Park Service, Moose, WY 83012, USA.
Thomas R StephensonSierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep Recovery Program, California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Bishop, CA 93514, USA.
Janice Stroud-SettlesZion National Park, National Park Service, Springdale, UT 84767, USA.
Frank T van ManenNorthern Rocky Mountain Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Bozeman, MT 59715, USA.
John A VucetichCollege of Forest Resources and Environmental Science, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI 49931, USA.
Kate WilmotGrand Teton National Park, National Park Service, Moose, WY 83012, USA.
Steve WindelsVoyageurs National Park, National Park Service, International Falls, MN 56649, USA.
Tiffany M WolfDepartment of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA.ORCID 0000-0003-1740-4442
Paul C CrossNorthern Rocky Mountain Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, Bozeman, MT 59715, USA.ORCID 0000-0001-8045-5213

Funding

Arizona Game and Fish DepartmentCalifornia Department of Fish and WildlifeDetroit Zoological SocietyDirectorate for Biological SciencesFederal Aid in Wildlife RestorationGrand Canyon ConservancyGrand Portage Band of Lake Superior ChippewaGrand Teton AssociationGrand Teton National Park FoundationInternational Wolf CenterMichigan Department of Natural ResourcesMichigan Technological UniversityMinistry of Natural ResourcesMinnesota Environment and Natural Resources Trust FundNational Center for Ecological Analysis and SynthesisNational Institute of Food and AgricultureNational Park ServiceNational Parks of Lake Superior FoundationNatural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of CanadaNevada Department of TransportationSafari Club InternationalSportsmen for Fish and WildlifeUniversity of MinnesotaUtah Division of Wildlife ResourcesUtah Wild Sheep FoundationYellowstone ForeverYosemite ConservancyZion Forever Project
6 · The paper itself

Abstract

Given the importance of protected areas for biodiversity, the growth of visitation to many areas has raised concerns about the effects of humans on wildlife. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic led to temporary closure of national parks in the United States, offering a pseudonatural experiment to tease apart the effects of permanent infrastructure and transient human presence on animals. We compiled GPS tracking data from 229 individuals of 10 mammal species in 14 parks and used third-order hierarchical resource selection functions to evaluate the influence of the human footprint on animal space use in 2019 and 2020. Averaged across all parks and species, animals avoided the human footprint, whether the park was open or closed. However, although animals in remote areas showed consistent avoidance, on average those in more developed areas switched from avoidance to selection when protected areas were closed. Findings varied across species: some responded consistently negatively to the footprint (wolves, mountain goats), some positively (mule deer, red fox) and others had a strong exposure-mediated response (elk, mountain lion). Furthermore, some species responded more strongly to the park closure (black bear, moose). This study advances our understanding of complex interactions between recreation and wildlife in protected areas.

Indexed as

Animals, WildConservation of Natural ResourcesMammalsParks, RecreationalAnimalsCOVID-19HumansUnited Statesanimal movementfunctional responsehuman footprinthuman-wildlife interactionsprotected areasrecreationResource Selection Function

Identifiers

PMID40742992
PMCPMC12312893

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Registered trials

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Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.