Impact of music-based interventions on subjective well-being: a meta-analysis of listening, training, and therapy in clinical and nonclinical populations.

Introduction: This meta-analysis aims to systematically evaluate the impacts of three types of Music-based interventions (MBIs)-music listening, music training, and music therapy on the subjective well-being (SWB) of clinical and non-clinical populations. Methods: The study conducted a systematic search of Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus (from inception to January 2025) using the PRISMA guidelines, and selected 10 studies with a total of 387 and 326 experimental and control groups, respectively. Study quality was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool for randomized controlled trials. A random-effects meta-analysis was then performed in Stata 18.0 to compute standardized mean differences (SMDs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Results: The pooled effect sizes indicated that MBIs were significantly associated with higher levels of SWB compared with control conditions (SMD = 0.36, 95% CI: 0.06-0.65, Discussion: The results indicated that MBIs may improve SWB, though the strength of the association appears to vary depending on the type of intervention and the characteristics of the target population. Music training yielded the most significant effects in clinical populations, whereas music therapy was most effective in nonclinical populations. The effects of music training and music listening were less pronounced potentially due to differences in emotional needs, interactivity, and training difficulty. Future research should focus on individualized designs for intervention and further investigate the influence of factors such as type of intervention, duration, frequency, characteristics of participants, and reinforcement of interventions on the long-term effects on SWB. Systematic review registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/, CRD42025641732.