Understanding encroachment typologies through remote sensing and socio-economic analysis: enhancing national park management in Kerinci Seblat National Park, Indonesia.

Encroachment remains a persistent challenge for Kerinci Seblat National Park (KSNP), despite its designation as a protected area. While agricultural use by local communities continues, limited understanding of the actors and their motivations hampers effective policy responses. This study addresses this gap by integrating remote sensing with socio-economic analysis to examine encroacher typologies and their spatial dynamics. Land use and land cover (LULC) changes were detected using Landsat 5, 7, and 8 imagery across six time periods (1988-2022), analyzed through maximum likelihood classification. Field surveys were conducted with 206 households, alongside in-depth interviews with customary leaders, village heads, and KSNP. We found an increasing trend of encroachment since the initial identification of the KSNP to the present, which correlates with the expansion of agricultural land. We grouped the typologies of encroachers into indigenous landless (23%), indigenous people with economic opportunities (29%), sly opportunists (2%), indigenous people as investors (3%), workers/profit-sharing partners (42%), and local migrants (1%). The dominant typology was workers/profit-sharing partners, which indicates that this partnership has a broad influence and wide coverage. Grouping actors supports the implementation of programs according to their motives and characteristics. The solution to encroachment should include a livelihood improvement program for indigenous people without land ownership, the establishment of utilization (e.g., agroforestry areas) and buffer zones, and enhanced law enforcement for other typologies.