Nanobiosensors for revolutionizing parasitic infections diagnosis: a critical review to improve global health with an update on future challenges prospect.

Parasitic infections remain a serious public health issue globally, requiring prompt and precise diagnosis. Traditional diagnostic techniques, such as microscopic examinations, immunological methods, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and molecular tests, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), are standard tools for parasite identification. However, traditional methods are time-consuming and have less sensitivity and specificity than nanobiosensors. Hence, the current review aims to analyze the nanobiosensors in detecting globally important human parasites, i.e., Plasmodium, Leishmania, Echinococcus, Schistosoma, and Taenia, emphasizing their significance in the early detection and analyzing their future challenges. Nanobiosensors provide efficient, sensitive, and rapid diagnosis of parasites' antigens or genetic material using nanomaterials, such as nanowires, quantum dots (QDs), metallic nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes, as well as identification of biomarkers, including excretory-secretory products and microRNAs. Nanobiosensors can utilize diverse nanomaterials such as gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for the detection of Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 (PfHRP2) in Plasmodium, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) functionalized with anti-EgAgB antibodies for Echinococcus, and QDs labeled with DNA probes for the detection of Leishmania kDNA. Regarding Schistosoma, graphene oxide (GO)-based nanobiosensors with a soluble egg antigen (SEA) binding, and for Taenia, metallic nanobiosensors can detect parasites' biomarkers even at low concentrations. Challenges for using nanobiosensors in parasitic infection diagnosis include limitations in mass production, biological matrix interference, and the need for standardization. Development of multiplex nanobiosensors using polymer nanofibers or hybrid nanoparticles for simultaneous detection of multiple pathogens, along with integration of lab-on-a-chip technology for point-of-care (PoC) platforms, is an important future prospect that needs to be worked on. In conclusion, considering the rapidly ongoing advancement of nanobiosensors, it is expected that they will aid the detection, treatment, and management of parasitic infections by providing new avenues for early detection, improved treatment, and improved disease management in the future.