Biographical analysis of 32 pharmacologists persecuted under the Nazi regime: scientific careers between persecution, emigration, and new beginnings.

Founded in 1873, Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology is the oldest pharmacological journal, and several historical studies have already been published on the occasion of its 150th anniversary. The present study analyzes the influence of the persecution and expulsion of Jewish and dissident German pharmacologists during the Nazi era (1933-1945) on the development of their scientific careers. The analysis is based on the book "Verfolgte deutschsprachige Pharmakologen 1933-1945" (engl. "Persecuted German-speaking pharmacologists 1933-1945") by Ullrich Trendelenburg and Konrad Löffelholz (2008), which contains short biographies of 71 persecuted pharmacologists. For this study, 32 of these scientists were selected and their professional development was analyzed in detail. The results show considerable differences in professional establishment after emigration. Young scientists in the early stages of their careers were usually able to successfully establish themselves in their receiving countries and often reached high academic positions, such as professorships or institute directorships. In many cases, established mid-career scientists were also able to continue and develop their careers abroad. On the other hand, senior pharmacologists who had held professorships or directorships before emigrating often found it difficult to obtain comparable positions abroad. Many had to settle for less senior positions. Tragically, two of the pharmacologists analyzed here were murdered in concentration camps. In addition, the biographies and publications of ten pharmacologists-Wilhelm Siegmund Feldberg, Alfred Fröhlich, Hans Kosterlitz, Otto Krayer, Otto Loewi, Hans Molitor, Ernst Peter Pick, Otto Riesser, Klaus Robert Walter Unna, and Marthe Louise Vogt-are analyzed in detail in this study. Their publications in Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology, the Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, and the British Journal of Pharmacology are analyzed in relation to their individual fates and careers. Although there are considerable individual differences, these ten scientists were generally able to successfully establish themselves in their new academic environment despite persecution and emigration. This was mainly due to their exceptional academic commitment, their high level of resilience, and the support they received from international networks and funding organizations. By combining bibliometric and biographical analysis, this study reveals the human and scientific cost of political oppression-and emphasizes the ongoing relevance of protecting academic freedom and diversity in science.