Park pricing in theory and practice and implications for ecosystem and human health.

Though a rich literature addresses the theory of park pricing, less attention has been paid to the practical realities. In this narrative review article, we ask why the setting of national park entry fees varies in practice, and we link this back to the underlying theory, the empirical academic literature, and practical realities. Park entry pricing strategies tend to differ considerably in higher and lower-income countries, reflecting practical realities of how to fund a national park system. Parks in higher-income countries are often free at the point of entry, consistent with the efficient pricing of global public goods. In contrast, differential pricing for local and foreign tourists is common in lower-income countries, an example of price discrimination that increases overall park revenues. We highlight a number of areas for further research. First, the concept of fairness and equitable access is an important practical consideration, linked to who benefits from visiting parks versus who pays, but much more attention needs to be paid to this in the literature. Second, while there is increasing recognition of the importance of green spaces for health and well-being, the literature largely ignores how health considerations might influence park entry fees, suggesting that more research is needed at the nexus of pricing, health and well-being, and equitable access. Finally, many lower-income countries that have a high dependence on foreign visitor fees to fund their national park systems are vulnerable to global shocks, suggesting research is needed into how to increase long-term sustainability of funding sources.