Examining the unidimensionality of the PHQ-9 with first responders: Evidence from different psychometric paradigms.

The Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) is an effective tool for identifying depressive disorders in diverse populations, making it a valuable resource in both clinical practice and research. However, the factor structure and dimensionality of the instrument have been contested. Studies have raised questions about whether the PHQ-9 adequately captures a single underlying construct or reflects multiple distinct dimensions of depression. This study examines the factor structure of the PHQ-9 among South African first responders using exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with ancillary bifactor indices, parallel analysis and Mokken analysis. A cross-sectional study design was used with data collected from police officers ( Contribution: The present study provides evidence from different measurement perspectives that the commonly used PHQ-9 measures a single construct of depression and not two separate components as some studies suggested. In practice, this simplifies the interpretation of scores, allowing clinicians to assess overall depression severity without needing to differentiate between symptom types.