ArticleFrontiers in immunology2025
Analysis of humoral and cellular immune activation up to 21 months after heterologous and homologous COVID-19 vaccination.
Article in Frontiers in immunology, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 2 papers.
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
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Who cites it
2 citing papers in PubMed.
- Correlation between the immune response to COVID-19 vaccines and the constitutions of traditional Chinese medicine.Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics · 2025Article
- Article
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Authors and funding
8 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
To address the COVID-19 pandemic, diverse vaccination strategies, including homologous and heterologous schedules, were employed to enhance immune protection. This study evaluates the long-term humoral and cellular immune responses in individuals vaccinated with homologous (ChAdOx1-S/ChAdOx1-S [ChAd/ChAd]) and heterologous (ChAdOx1-S/BNT162b2 [ChAd/BNT]) schedules, followed by a third-dose mRNA booster (BNT162b2 [BNT] or mRNA-1273). Anti-Spike IgG titers were measured at 9-, 12-, and 21-months post-primary vaccination (corresponding to 3-, 6-, and 15-months post-booster), while SARS-CoV-2-specific B- and T-cell responses were assessed at 21-months post-booster. Antibody titers declined by 12-months post-primary vaccination, regardless of the third dose administered, and increased significantly by 21-months, potentially due to a fourth dose (BNT or mRNA-1273) or natural SARS-CoV-2 infection. The heterologous ChAd/BNT schedule elicited a stronger and more durable immune response than the homologous ChAd/ChAd, as evidenced by higher anti-Spike IgG titers, increased IgM-/IgG+ memory B-cell activation, and enhanced cytotoxic CD8+ T-cell cytokine expression in infected individuals. SARS-CoV-2 infection further boosted humoral and cellular responses, with infected individuals showing higher anti-Spike IgG titers and greater CD8+ T-cell activation compared to uninfected individuals. These findings highlight the benefits of heterologous vaccination schedules and the role of infection-driven immune activation, providing valuable insights for optimizing vaccination strategies to improve long-term immunity against SARS-CoV-2.
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