Injury rates following conducted electrical weapons and other less-lethal force modalities in real-life police settings: a comparative literature review.

The aim of this study was to rank the rate and risk ratio of subject injury following exposure to less-lethal force modalities in real-life police interventions. The purpose was to observe whether the use of conductive electrical weapons (CEW) qualifies as a low-risk modality of force, with a similar risk of adverse health outcomes as exposure to other less-lethal modalities, such as physical force, baton, oleoresin capsicum (OC) spray, and canine. A literature search was conducted using the scientific databases PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science. We rated the included articles based on quality and calculated the weighted means of injury rates. We found 19 articles reporting the rate or risk ratio of injury following exposure to common less-lethal force modalities in real-life settings. OC spray appeared to have the lowest rate of subject injury. The outcome for subject injury following CEW was ambiguous but seemed to be lower in comparison to baton and canine. However, the findings should be interpreted with caution due to methodological limitations. The identified studies were heterogeneous in design, which limits the conclusions drawn. In general, there was an indication that the risk of injury is lowest when OC spray is used. The rate of subject injury following the use of CEW is lower compared to baton and canine. Further research using a systematic approach to the registration of injuries is warranted.