ArticleNutrients2025
Urinary Caffeine Levels in Chinese Children: Insights from Diet, Gender, and Regional Variations.
Article in Nutrients, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND/
objectivesThe consumption of caffeine products among children in China is on the rise, yet there remains a paucity of evidence regarding the variability of caffeine consumption and the influencing factors. Urinary caffeine levels provide a valid indicator of caffeine intake, as it directly reflects the quantitative measure of consumption within the population. This study aimed to investigate the effects of diet, gender, and region on urinary caffeine concentrations in Chinese children and their parents, specifically focusing on participants from Guangdong province and Guangxi province.
methodsMorning urine samples were pretreated using liquid-liquid extraction. Caffeine and creatinine concentrations were analyzed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS), with quality control measures ensuring method accuracy (recovery rate: 92.8-122%, RSD < 20%). Caffeine exposure was assessed through estimated daily intake (EDI) calculations, and statistical analyses, including weighted regression and Spearman correlation, were conducted to evaluate associations with demographic and dietary variables.
resultsThe findings revealed that urinary caffeine levels and detection rates among Chinese children were significantly lower than those observed in the United States (30.1 ng/mL), with a median concentration of 2.18 ng/mL and a detection rate of 45%. Urinary caffeine concentrations in males were slightly higher than in females; however, these gender differences were not statistically significant. Certain dietary habits, particularly milk consumption, were found to influence urinary caffeine levels and detection rates. Using the random forest method, urine caffeine detection was highest (nearly 60%) when milk was consumed three times a week. Regionally, children in Guangdong had marginally higher urinary caffeine concentrations compared to those in Guangxi (median: 5.20 μg/g
conclusionsThese results indicate that dietary habits significantly correlated with caffeine consumption in children, and urinary caffeine concentration serves as a valuable measure for dietary research.
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