Demography of grandmothering: a case study in Agta foragers.

Grandmothers are often presented as key carers due to low costs and high inclusive fitness returns. Empirically, however, grandmothers are not consistently important. Understanding the factors that promote, or hinder, grandmothering is an important next step. We explore the demographic predictors of the low levels of grandmothering in Agta hunter-gatherers (78 children with 29 grandmothers). Due to generational reproductive timing, grandmothers still had dependent children until, on average 52, creating reproductive overlap. The minimal levels of grandmaternal investment after the age of 60 are explained by declining health and high mortality. This means the 'helping window' for grandmothering only spans 7 years. Yet grandmothers are still limited by multiple dependent grandchildren in this period, given high fertility. We suggest then that Agta grandmothering is constrained by (i) reproductive overlap and (ii) grandchildren competition. Accordingly, we tested how (i) the number of children and (ii) grandchildren associated with grandmothering using Bayesian mixed-effect models. We found moderate to strong evidence that more children/grandchildren reduced investment in each grandchild. Consequently, whether Agta grandmothers help appears dependent on demographic schedules, which vary widely both within and between populations. Future formal demographic modelling will then help shed light on the evolution of grandmothering in humans.