Evidence map›Paper›PMID 40349171›Full record

ArticleAdvanced science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany)2025

AI-Driven Defecation Analysis by Smart Healthcare Toilet: Exploring Biometric Patterns and Eu-Tenesmus.

Zhiquan Song, TaeHyung Kwon, Jeung Lee, Daeyoun D Won, Brian J Lee, Hyuk Soon Choi, Joseph C Liao, Walter G Park, Irene Sonu, Stephan Rogalla and 7 more

Abstract read
PubMed Full text at PMC Publisher
In one paragraph

Article in Advanced science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany), 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 3 papers.

0numbers the graph read from it
0cells of the map it votes in
3citing papers in PubMed
–field-weighted citation impact
1 · What the graph read from it

What it found

Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.

The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.

2 · The registry

The trial behind it

Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.

Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.

3 · Its place in the literature

Who cites it

3 citing papers in PubMed.

  1. Article
  2. Tumor Exposomics: A New Paradigm for Individualized Continuous Exposure Monitoring.Advanced science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany) · 2026
    Article
  3. Article
4 · The record

Corrections and comments

PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.

5 · Who and what money

Authors and funding

17 authors.

Zhiquan SongSchool of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5346-9473
TaeHyung KwonDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
Jeung LeeDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
Daeyoun D WonSeokjeong Wellpark Hospital, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea.
Brian J LeeSchool of Mechanical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea.
Hyuk Soon ChoiDivision of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
Joseph C LiaoDepartment of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
Walter G ParkDivision of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
Irene SonuDivision of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
Stephan RogallaDivision of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
Michael J RosenDivision of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
David L HuGeorge W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
Jonathan Kuang ZiyangDepartment of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore.
Sunny Hei WongDepartment of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore.
Bong Hyun JunDepartment of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
Soh KimDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
Seung-Min ParkSchool of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2123-6245

Funding

A*STAR M24N9b0119Singapore MOE Tier 1 RS29/23
6 · The paper itself

Abstract

Defecation, a fundamental physiological process, remains underexplored despite its importance in human health. To address this gap, a smart toilet system is developed that enables real-time monitoring of defecation behaviors. Analyzing 45 defecation events from 11 participants, key defecation parameters are identified, including stool dropping duration, stool thickness, and eu-tenesmus interval. Stool dropping duration follows a log-normal distribution, with longer durations (>5 s) linked to lower Bristol Stool Form Scale (BSFS) scores, suggesting constipation (p = 0.008 for BSFS1/2/3 vs BSFS5/6/7). Stool thickness decreases with increasing BSFS scores (p = 5 × 10⁻⁶ for BSFS1/2/3 vs BSFS5/6/7), validating its role as an objective marker for bowel function. Eu-tenesmus is introduced, defined as the interval between the last stool drop and cleansing, averaging 74.8 s. It shows significant gender differences (p = 0.014) but no correlation with stool consistency, suggesting its potential as an independent biomarker for gut health. Defecation behaviors between humans and animals is also compared in detail. Longitudinal monitoring demonstrates the potential for personalized health tracking and dietary recommendations. Furthermore, the feasibility of biometric identification is established using 11 defecation-related parameters, including stool properties and cleansing behavior. These features enable high participant differentiation, supporting non-invasive identity verification.

Indexed as

ConstipationDefecationAdultBiometryFecesFemaleHumansMaleMiddle Agedbiometricsdefecationdigital biomarkersmart toilettenesmus

Identifiers

PMID40349171
PMCPMC12376671

What OpenQuestion holds

Textmetadata
LicenceCC BY
Read underepoch 390

Registered trials

None linked

Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.