Intelligent Clustering and Adaptive Energy Management in Wireless Sensor Networks with KDE-Based Deployment.

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are widely used in IoT, environmental monitoring, and industrial systems, but ensuring energy efficiency, extended network lifetime, and reliable communication under real-world constraints remains challenging. This work proposes a novel clustering framework that integrates kernel density estimation (KDE)-based adaptive node deployment, silhouette-optimized K-means clustering, Bayesian cluster head (CH) selection with Gaussian noise-based energy uncertainty modeling, energy-efficient coverage control, and carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance-based data transmission. Unlike conventional approaches that rely on fixed clustering and uniform deployments, our framework supports terrain-aware node placement and dynamic CH selection based on residual energy and distance under imperfect sensing conditions. Simulation results demonstrate significant improvements in performance, including over 35% extension in network lifetime and higher coverage retention under energy constraints, compared to baseline methods such as LEACH and K-LEACH. While detailed metrics vary per run due to adaptive parameters and stochastic node behavior, these outcomes validate the scalability, robustness, and practical relevance of the proposed method for real-world WSN deployments.