Kalman Filter-Based Epidemiological Model for Post-COVID-19 Era Surveillance and Prediction.

In the post-COVID-19 era, the dynamic spread of COVID-19 poses new challenges to epidemiological modelling, particularly due to the absence of large-scale screening and the growing complexity introduced by immune failure and reinfections. This paper proposes an AEIHD (antibody-acquired, exposed, infected, hospitalised, and deceased) model to analyse and predict COVID-19 transmission dynamics in the post-COVID-19 era. This model removes the susceptible compartment and combines the recovered and vaccinated compartments into an "antibody-acquired" compartment. It also introduces a new hospitalised compartment to monitor severe cases. The model incorporates an antibody-acquired infection rate to account for immune failure. The Extended Kalman Filter based on the AEIHD model is proposed for real-time state and parameter estimation, overcoming the limitations of fixed-parameter approaches and enhancing adaptability to nonlinear dynamics. Simulation studies based on reported data from Australia validate the AEIHD model, demonstrating its capability to accurately capture COVID-19 transmission dynamics with limited statistical information. The proposed approach addresses the key limitations of traditional SIR and SEIR models by integrating hospitalisation data and time-varying parameters, offering a robust framework for monitoring and predicting epidemic behaviours in the post-COVID-19 era. It also provides a valuable tool for public health decision-making and resource allocation to handle rapidly evolving epidemiology.