Analytical techniques and molecular platforms for detection and surveillance of antimicrobial resistance: advancements of the past decade.

Developing countries have been able to control and minimise the mortality rates caused by pathogenic infections by ensuring affordable access to antibiotics. However, a large number of bacterial ailments are treated with wrong antibiotic prescription due to improper disease diagnosis. Apart from healthcare, antibiotics are also imprudently utilised in crop processing and animal husbandry. This unsupervised usage of antibiotics has propelled the generation of multidrug-resistant species of bacteria. Presently, several traditional antimicrobial susceptibility/resistance tests (AST/ART) are available; however, the accuracy and reproducibility of these tests are often debatable. Rigorous efforts are essential to develop techniques and methods which substantially decrease turnaround time for resistance screening. The present review has comprehensively incorporated the improvements in instrumentation and molecular methods for antimicrobial resistance studies. We have enlisted some innovative takes on conventional techniques such as isothermal calorimetry, Raman spectroscopy, mass spectrometry and microscopy. The contributions of modern molecular tools such as CRISPR-Cas, aptamers and Oxford-MinION sequencers have also been discussed. Persistent evolution has been observed towards adding innovation in diagnostic platforms for drug resistome screening, with the major attraction being the involvement of non-conventional analytical methods and technological improvements in existing setups. This review highlights these updates and provides a detailed account of principal developments in molecular methods for the testing of drug resistance in bacteria.