ArticleAdvanced science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany)2025
Immunity Debt for Seasonal Influenza After the COVID-19 Pandemic and as a Result of Nonpharmaceutical Interventions: An Ecological Analysis and Cohort Study.
Article in Advanced science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany), 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 19 papers, 1 of them a synthesis that pooled it.
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Who cites it
19 citing papers in PubMed, 1 synthesis or guideline pooled it.
- Incidence, mortality and risk factors of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in critically ill patients during the COVID-19 era: a global systematic review and meta-analysis.Annals of clinical microbiology and antimicrobials · 2026Pooled it
- Stage-aware deep learning with adversarial data synthesis enables prospective season-scale A/H1N1 influenza forecasting in China.Infectious Disease Modelling · 2027Article
- Epidemiological and virological characteristics of influenza in Zhejiang Province, China: A 15-year surveillance study.Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics · 2026Article
- Phylodynamic reconstruction of H1N1pdm09 influenza virus transmission in Brazil: a decade of evolutionary dynamics.Emerging microbes & infections · 2026Article
- Increased respiratory pathogen positivity and diversity in hospitalized children following the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia.New microbes and new infections · 2026Article
- Comprehensive profiling of humoral immune responses to pan-respiratory pathogens: Insights from diverse cohorts.iScience · 2026Article
- Pre-pandemic contraction, phase-specific rate variation, and site-specific antigenic adaptation shape influenza A(H3N2) evolutionary dynamics in Hubei, China.Journal of virology · 2026Article
- Epidemiological characteristics and seasonal dynamics of six respiratory pathogens in children: a 2-year retrospective cross-sectional study in Chengdu, China.BMC pediatrics · 2026Article
- Epidemiological dynamics of respiratory tract infections in a major northern coastal city (Dalian), China, following the COVID-19 pandemic.BMC infectious diseases · 2026Article
- Viral Immunity in Immunoglobulin Products: Global Immunity Debt and Autoimmunity in the Postpandemic Era.European journal of immunology · 2026Article
- Article
- Post-pandemic resurgence and collapse ofFrontiers in public health · 2026Article
- Lifestyle factors or protective behaviors: which are more strongly associated with upper respiratory tract infections after COVID-19? A cross-sectional study of 1,535 Chinese college students.Frontiers in public health · 2026Article
- Epidemiology and co-infection networks of pediatric respiratory pathogens in eastern China after COVID-19 restriction relaxation: a retrospective study.Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology · 2026Article
- Suppression and resurgence: the evolving epidemiology of seasonal influenza from 2015 to 2024 in a core urban district of Beijing, China.Frontiers in public health · 2026Article
- Changing Epidemiology of Influenza Infections Among Children in the Post-Pandemic Period: A Case Study in Xi'an, China.Vaccines · 2025Article
- Preparing for the Next Influenza Pandemic: Vaccine Progress, Challenges, and Prospects.China CDC weekly · 2025Article
- Shifts in Influenza and Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection Patterns in Korea After the COVID-19 Pandemic Resulting From Immunity Debt: Retrospective Observational Study.JMIR public health and surveillance · 2025Observational
- Immunity Debt for Seasonal Influenza After the COVID-19 Pandemic and as a Result of Nonpharmaceutical Interventions: An Ecological Analysis and Cohort Study.Advanced science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany) · 2025Article
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7 authors.
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Abstract
Non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) during the COVID-19 pandemic significantly reduced influenza transmission. This study explores the hypothesis of "immunity debt" which suggests increased vulnerability to influenza following reduced exposure during the pandemic. World Health Organization aggregated data on influenza from 116 countries and its association with NPI intensity as measured by the COVID-19 Stringency Index is analyzed. Where individual-level data available (France, the United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Romania), the analyses of influenza monthly rates in six European countries (France, the United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Romania) are replicated. The results indicate globally a 46.3% (95% CI: 15.79-70.78%) reduction in influenza cases during COVID-19 restrictions in the winter season, followed by a 131.7% (95% CI: 34.95-255.78%) increase in the first postrelaxation winter and a 161.2% (95% CI: 31.88-382.16%) increase in the summer as compared to the predicted level based on historical influenza epidemic trends. In addition, a positive association between the Stringency Index and post-relaxation influenza surge is observed globally (R
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