ArticleNucleic acids research2025
Spatiotemporal dynamics of protamine-DNA condensation revealed by high-speed atomic force microscopy.
Article in Nucleic acids research, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 11 papers.
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Who cites it
11 citing papers in PubMed.
- Shield strike shatter in DNA topology and nuclease interactions.Nature communications · 2026Article
- Counteraction of HMGB1 at ss-dsDNA junctions maintains liquidity of protamine-DNA co-condensates.Nature communications · 2026Article
- Structural basis for auto-inhibition of the Rac1/Cdc42 guanine nucleotide exchange factor DOCK6 by oligomer formation.Communications biology · 2026Article
- Real-time visualization of spatial and temporal coordination in resolvase-mediated Holliday junction binding.iScience · 2026Article
- Counteraction of HMGB1 at ss-dsDNA junctions maintains liquidity of protamine-DNA co-condensates.bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology · 2026Article
- Zooming into Disease at the Nanoscale: High-Speed Atomic Force Microscopy in Biomedical Discovery.ACS nano · 2026Review
- From biomolecular condensates to functional nanomaterials: LLPS-inspired frameworks for nanoscale hydrogels and adaptive materials.Journal of nanobiotechnology · 2026Review
- Measuring bridging forces in protein-DNA condensates.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · 2026Article
- Molecular states and interfacial interactions at solid-liquid interfaces: advances and challenges in multimodal characterization.Beilstein journal of nanotechnology · 2026Review
- Unraveling dynamics of nuclear pore and chromatin via HS-AFM.Anatomical science international · 2026Review
- Zooming into Gene Activation: Estrogen Receptor α Dimerization and DNA Binding Visualized by High-Speed Atomic Force Microscopy.ACS nano · 2025Article
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Authors and funding
8 authors.
Funding
Abstract
Protamines (PRMs) play a crucial role in sperm chromatin condensation, replacing histones to form nucleo-PRM structures, specifically PRM-DNA complexes. Despite their importance in reproduction, the detailed mechanisms underlying PRM-mediated DNA condensation have remained elusive. In this study, we employed high-speed atomic force microscopy (HS-AFM) to directly visualize the real-time binding dynamics of PRM to DNA under physiological conditions. Our HS-AFM observations reveal that PRM insertion initiating the formation of DNA coils. Further, we observed a heterogeneous spatial distribution of PRM-induced DNA looping. With continuous PRM addition, DNA progresses through a series of folding transitions, forming coiled-like structures that evolve into clockwise spirals, rod-shaped intermediates, and ultimately toroid-like nanostructures. Based on these real-time observations, we propose the CARD (Coil-Assembly-Rod-Doughnut) model to describe the stepwise process of toroid formation during DNA condensation. Our findings underscore the versatility of HS-AFM in capturing the spatiotemporal dynamics of PRM-DNA interactions and provide critical insights into the molecular mechanisms driving PRM-induced chromatin compaction. This study advances our understanding of sperm chromatin architecture and offers a framework for future research into chromatin organization, reproductive biology, and nucleic acid therapeutics.
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