Linking individual variation in facial musculature to facial behavior in rhesus macaques.

Facial expression is a key component of primate communication, and primates (including humans) have a complex system of facial musculature underpinning this behavior. Human facial musculature is highly variable across individuals, but to date, whether other primate species exhibit a similar level of inter-individual variation is unknown. Whether individual-level variation in facial musculature covaries with significant differences in facial movement within the same individual is also unknown. Here, we use facial dissection data from 31 adult rhesus macaques, the largest sample to date, to quantify inter-individual variation in facial muscle presence. We used a subsample of eight individuals to measure covariation between facial muscle presence and the presence of external facial movements (action units in the Facial Action Coding System, or FACS). We found, in contrast to humans, limited inter-individual variation in muscle presence, but the zygomatic region exhibited more gross anatomical variation in muscle presence and morphology than any other region of the macaque face. We also found a good correspondence between facial muscle presence and the presence of the associated action units. Our results indicate that the observed variation in rhesus macaque facial expressivity is not likely driven primarily by variation in facial muscle presence but may instead be due to other factors such as learned behavior and/or physiological differences. These findings provide insight into the anatomical basis of inter-individual variation in facial behavior in primates and suggest potential differences in variation between humans and other primate species.