ArticleInternational journal for equity in health2025
An analytical approach towards attaining leave no one behind using patterns and distributions of inequalities in antenatal and facility delivery coverage in Uttar Pradesh, India.
Article in International journal for equity in health, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
backgroundLeave No One Behind (LNOB) is a central, transformative promise of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals. To attain LNOB, systematic analysis of patterns and distributions of inequalities in coverage of health outcomes on a continuous basis at different program delivery layers is required to design tailored health interventions. We analysed the patterns of change and geographic distribution of inequalities in coverage of antenatal care and facility-based delivery in Uttar Pradesh (UP), India and developed a framework to guide health programmers to understand inequalities better, to accelerate progress by reaching those left behind.
methodsData from five-rounds of National Family Health Survey (1992-2021) and two-rounds of Community Behaviour Tracking Survey (2014-2018) is used. Education and wealth have been used as stratifiers. Three measures of inequality- mean difference from mean, slope index of inequality, and inequality pattern index are used to depict the state, district and sub-district level inequalities.
resultsUP observed a substantial reduction in the education-related inequality in ANC and facility-delivery during 1992-2021. The slope index of inequality declined from 65.3 [95%CI:60.0-70.6] to 9.3 [95%CI:7.8-10.8] for ANC and from 44.7 [95%CI:38.5-50.9] to 29.9 [95%CI:27.8-32.0] for facility-delivery during 1992-2021. The inequality pattern index showed that, with improved reach of interventions, many districts moved towards bottom inequality from top inequality for any ANC while fewer districts for facility-delivery. Even in districts with high coverage and low inequality, sub-district level(blocks) inequality persisted. Similarly, in blocks with high coverage and low inequality, Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) level inequality persisted. Interestingly, for the same ASHA area, the patterns of inequality differed for any ANC and facility delivery; in some districts, inequality direction changed based on the stratifier chosen.
conclusionsThe proposed health equity framework suggests that to achieve LNOB status, understanding inequality with the coverage status is important. If coverage is high and inequality persists, identify the program layer at which maximum inequality persists to identify the left behinds. Whereas, if coverage is poor, programs are required to improve coverage first. Findings also call for a systematic way of collecting and organizing granular data to understand inequality and identify the left-behinds.
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