Diabetic gastroenteropathy: a pan-alimentary complication.

Autonomic neuropathy contributes to the pathophysiology of diabetic gastroenteropathy, which impacts the entire gastrointestinal tract alongside pancreatic and gallbladder functions. This is evident in the widespread morphological remodelling of the enteric nervous system, smooth muscle cells, interstitial cells of Cajal and vascular supply, causing pan-enteric motor, sensory and secretory disturbances. The gastrointestinal symptoms caused by these changes are often burdensome and non-specific and frequently coexist with poor glycaemic management and even malnutrition, impacting quality of life negatively. The Gastroparesis Cardinal Symptom Index and the Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale are validated questionnaires for assessing gastrointestinal symptoms. However, clinical supplementary objective measures are essential. Transit time assessments are frequently used and typically evaluated using gastric emptying scintigraphy, breath tests or colonic radiopaque markers, but they cannot measure contractile activity or fluid transport. The primary treatment goals are to prevent further disease progression and to obtain symptomatic relief. Treatments include improved glycaemic management and dietary modifications, while pharmacological treatments target gastrointestinal symptoms, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth and exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. Invasive interventions may involve gastric peroral pyloromyotomy or the implantation of a gastric neurostimulator to manage pharmacologically refractory gastroparesis. This review describes the prevalence, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, assessment and treatment of diabetic gastrointestinal dysfunction within each segment of the gastrointestinal tract and directly connected exocrine organs.