Evidence map›Paper›PMID 39908277›Full record

ArticlePloS one2025

Higher education students' perceptions of ChatGPT: A global study of early reactions.

Dejan Ravšelj, Damijana Keržič, Nina Tomaževič, Lan Umek, Nejc Brezovar, Noorminshah A Iahad, Ali Abdulla Abdulla, Anait Akopyan, Magdalena Waleska Aldana Segura, Jehan AlHumaid and 139 more

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Article in PloS one, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. An erratum has been issued. Cited by 33 papers, 1 of them a synthesis that pooled it.

0numbers the graph read from it
0cells of the map it votes in
33citing papers in PubMed, 1 pooled it
–field-weighted citation impact
1 · What the graph read from it

What it found

Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.

The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.

2 · The registry

The trial behind it

Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.

Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.

3 · Its place in the literature

Who cites it

33 citing papers in PubMed, 1 synthesis or guideline pooled it.

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4 · The record

Corrections and comments

5 · Who and what money

Authors and funding

149 authors.

Dejan RavšeljFaculty of Public Administration, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0426-820X
Damijana KeržičFaculty of Public Administration, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4505-7134
Nina TomaževičFaculty of Public Administration, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8126-1971
Lan UmekFaculty of Public Administration, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
Nejc BrezovarFaculty of Public Administration, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
Noorminshah A IahadDepartment of Information Systems, Faculty of Management, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia.
Ali Abdulla AbdullaDepartment of Computer Science and IT, State University of Zanzibar (SUZA), Zanzibar, Tanzania.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7842-0617
Anait AkopyanDepartment of English for the Humanities, Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2793-4463
Magdalena Waleska Aldana SeguraEducation Department, Galileo University, Guatemala, Guatemala.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0937-2567
Jehan AlHumaidDepartment of Preventive Dental Sciences, College of Dentistry, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia.
Mohamed Farouk AllamDepartment of Family Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
Maria AllóDepartment of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of A Coruna, A Coruna, Spain.
Raphael Papa Kweku AndohDirectorate of Research, Innovation and Consultancy, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana.
Octavian AndronicInnovation and eHealth Center, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9053-0018
Yarhands Dissou ArthurDepartment of Mathematics Education, Faculty of Applied Sciences and Mathematics Education, Akenten Appiah Menka University of Skills Training and Entrepreneurial Development (AAMUSTED), Kumasi, Ghana.
Fatih AydınFaculty of Education, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Sivas, Türkiye.
Amira BadranFaculty of Dentistry, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
Roxana Balbontín-AlvaradoFaculty of Education and Humanities, University of Bío Bío, Chillán, Chile.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3432-193X
Helmi Ben SaadResearch Laboratory LR12SP09 "Heart Failure", Faculty of Medicine of Sousse, University of Sousse, Sousse, Tunisia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7477-2965
Andrea BencsikDepartment of Management, University of Pannonia, Veszprem, Hungary.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8204-3706
Isaac BenningDepartment of Mathematics & ICT Education, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana.
Adrian BesimiFaculty of Contemporary Sciences and Technologies, South East European University, Tetovo, Republic of North Macedonia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2093-5500
Denilson da Silva BezerraDepartment of Oceanography and Limnology. Federal University of Maranhão, São Luis, Brazil.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9567-7828
Chiara BuizzaDepartment of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy.
Roberto BurroDepartment of Human Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4491-2015
Anthony BwalyaDepartment of Biological Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University, Kitwe, Zambia.
Cristina CacheroLanguages and Computer Systems, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain.
Patricia Castillo-BricenoEBIOAC Lab, Faculty of Life Sciences and Technologies, Universidad Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabi ULEAM, Manta, Ecuador.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9122-6002
Harold CastroDepartment of Systems and Computing Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, Bogota, Colombia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7586-9419
Ching Sing ChaiCentre for Learning Sciences and Technologies, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China.
Constadina CharalambousDepartment of Education, European University Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus.
Thomas K F ChiuDepartment of Curriculum and Instruction, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China.
Otilia ClipaScience of Education, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Suceava, Romania.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7313-2993
Ruggero ColombariDepartment of Economics and Social Sciences, International University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4496-3314
Luis José H Corral EscobedoIAM, Physics Department, CUCEI, University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico.
Elísio CostaCompetence Center on Active and Healthy Ageing and CINTESIS@Rise, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1158-1480
Radu George CrețulescuComputer Science and Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania.
Marta CrispinoIndependent Researcher, Rome, Italy.
Nicola CucariDepartment of Management, Faculty of Economics, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
Fergus DaltonDepartment of Psychology, University of the Fraser Valley, Abbotsford, Canada.
Meva Demir KayaFaculty of Letters, University of Ataturk, Erzurum, Turkiye.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1174-6305
Ivo Dumić-ČuleDepartment of Nursing, University North, Varaždin, Croatia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2005-6402
Diena DwidienawatiBINUS Business School, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia.
Ryan EbardoDepartment of Information Technology, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4399-8088
Daniel Lawer EgbenyaCollege of Health and Allied Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana.
MoezAlIslam Ezzat FarisFaculty of Allied Medical Sciences, Applied Sciences Private University, Jordan, Jordan.
Miroslav FečkoFaculty of Public Administration, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia.
Paulo FerrinhoGlobal Health and Tropical Medicine (GHTM), Associate Laboratory in Translation and Innovation Towards Global Health (LA-REAL), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical (IHMT), Nova University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.
Adrian FloreaComputer Science and Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0278-4825
Chun Yuen FongInternational College of Liberal Arts, Yamanashi Gakuin University, Kofu, Japan.
Zoë FrancisDepartment of Psychology, University of the Fraser Valley, Abbotsford, Canada.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9488-9132
Alberto GhilardiDepartment of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy.
Belinka González-FernándezDepartment of Sciences and Engineering, Ibero-American University Puebla, Puebla, Mexico.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1075-9761
Daniela HauDepartment of Education and Social Work, University of Luxembourg, Belval Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg.ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0003-9301-9017
Md Shamim HossainDepartment of Marketing, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur, Bangladesh.
Theo HugDepartment of Media, Society and Communication, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
Fany InasiusSchool of Accounting, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia.
Maryam Jaffar IsmailSchool of Education, State University of Zanzibar (SUZA), Zanzibar, Tanzania.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1856-1899
Hatidža JahićSchool of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Morrison Omokiniovo JessaGuidance and Counselling, Delta State University Abraka, Abraka, Nigeria.ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0000-0559-9188
Marika KapanadzeSchool of Business Technology and Education, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia.
Sujita Kumar KarDepartment of Psychiatry, King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India.
Elham Talib KateebOral Health Research and Promotion Unit, Al-Quds University. Jerusalem, Palestine.
Feridun KayaFaculty of Letters, University of Ataturk, Erzurum, Turkiye.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9549-6691
Hanaa Ouda KhadriFaculty of Education, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1227-6624
Masao KikuchiDepartment of Public Management. Meiji University, Tokyo, Japan.
Vitaliy Mykolayovych KobetsComputer Science and Software Engineering Department, Kherson State University, Kherson, Ukraine.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4386-4103
Katerina Metodieva KostovaDepartment of Technologies and Management of Communication Systems, Faculty of Telecommunications, Technical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Evita KrasmaneDepartment of Education, Alberta College, Riga, Latvia.
Jesus LauFaculty of Pedagogy, Universidad Veracruzana, Veracruz, Mexico.
Wai Him Crystal LawInternational College of Liberal Arts, Yamanashi Gakuin University, Kofu, Japan.
Florin LazărSociology and Social Work, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania.
Lejla Lazović-PitaSchool of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Vivian Wing Yan LeeCentre for Learning Enhancement and Research (CLEAR), Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong SAR, China.
Jingtai LiSchool of Foreign Languages, Jiaying University, Meizhou, China.
Diego Vinicio López-AguilarLanguages Department, Indoamerica Technological University, Ambato, Ecuador.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3625-5841
Adrian LucaDepartment of Applied Psychology and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania.
Ruth Garcia LucianoCollege of Information and Communications Technology, Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology, Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija, Philippines.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8532-6971
Juan D Machin-MastromatteoFaculty of Philosophy and Letters, Autonomous University of Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4884-0474
Marwa MadiDepartment of Preventive Dental Sciences, College of Dentistry, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia.
Alexandre Lourenço MangueleHealth Sciences Department, Higher Institute of Health Sciences, Maputo, Mozambique.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9992-9351
Rubén Francisco ManriqueDepartment of Systems and Computing Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, Bogota, Colombia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8742-2094
Thumah MapulangaAfrican Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and Science, University of Rwanda, Kayonza, Rwanda.
Frederic MarimonDepartment of Economics and Social Sciences, International University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5572-7341
Galia Ilieva MarinovaDepartment of Technologies and Management of Communication Systems, Faculty of Telecommunications, Technical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8804-5662
Marta Mas-MachucaDepartment of Economics and Social Sciences, International University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain.
Oliva Mejía-RodríguezMedicine School, Vasco de Quiroga University, Morelia, Mexico.
Maria Meletiou-MavrotherisDepartment of Education, European University Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus.
Silvia Mariela Méndez-PradoFaculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, ESPOL Polytechnic University, Guayaquil, Ecuador.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2978-2424
José Manuel Meza-CanoFaculty of Higher Education Iztacala, National Autonomous University of Mexico, State of Mexico, Mexico.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9504-7906
Evija MirķeInstitute of Digital Humanities, Faculty of Computer Science, Information Technology and Energy, Riga Technical University, Riga. Latvia.
Alpana MishraDepartment of Community Medicine, Kalinga Institute of Medical Science. Bhubaneswar, India.
Ondrej MitalFaculty of Public Administration, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia.
Cristina MollicaDepartment of Statistical Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
Daniel Ionel MorariuComputer Science and Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Sibiu, Romania.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9561-8625
Natalia MospanDepartment of Linguistics and Translation, Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University, Kyiv, Ukraine.
Angel MukukaDepartment of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, Mukuba University, Kitwe, Zambia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0292-1324
Silvana Guadalupe Navarro JiménezIAM, Physics Department, CUCEI, University of Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Mexico.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1248-3893
Irena NikajFaculty of Education & Philology, University Fan S. Noli Korça, Korça, Albania.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6996-9862
Maria Mihaylova NishevaFaculty of Mathematics and Informatics, Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski, Sofia, Bulgaria.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9917-9535
Efi NisiforouDepartment of Education, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus.
Joseph NjikuEducational Psychology and Curriculum Studies, Dar es Salaam University College of Education, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4257-5537
Singhanat NomnianResearch Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia, Mahidol University, Salaya, Thailand.
Lulzime Nuredini-MehmediData Analysis Office, South East European University, Tetovo, Republic of North Macedonia.
Ernest NyamekyeDepartment of Arts Education, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6968-9166
Alka ObadićFaculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8915-8853
Abdelmohsen Hamed OkelaFaculty of Specific Education, Minia University, Minia, Egypt.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5262-3440
Dorit Olenik-ShemeshEducation & Psychology, The Research Center for Innovation in Learning Technologies, Open University of Israel, Raanana, Israel.
Izabela OstojDepartment of Economics, Faculty of Economics, University of Economics in Katowice, Katowice, Poland.
Kevin Javier Peralta-RizzoFaculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, ESPOL Polytechnic University, Guayaquil, Ecuador.
Almir PeštekSchool of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5958-4993
Amila Pilav-VelićSchool of Economics and Business, University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Dilma Rosanda Miranda PiresFaculty of Science and Technology, University of Cape Verde, Praia, Cape Verde.
Eyal RabinEducation & Psychology, The Research Center for Innovation in Learning Technologies, Open University of Israel, Raanana, Israel.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3726-0645
Daniela RaccanelloDepartment of Human Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2810-7630
Agustine RamieNursing Department, Health Polytechnic of Banjarmasin, Banjarbaru, Indonesia.
Md Mamun Ur RashidDepartment of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Patuakhali, Bangladesh.
Robert A P ReuterDepartment of Education and Social Work, University of Luxembourg, Belval Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3552-5718
Valentina ReyesFacultad de Economía y Negocios, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8010-4402
Ana Sofia RodriguesPolytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo, Viana do Castelo, Portugal.
Paul RodwayDivision of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Society, University of Chester, Chester, United Kingdom.
Silvia RučinskáFaculty of Public Administration, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8576-0874
Shorena SadzaglishviliResearch Center for Advancing Science in the Social Services and Interventions, Social Work Program, Faculty of Arts and Science, Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5469-1893
Ashraf Atta M S SalemCollege of Languages & Translation, Sadat Academy for Management Sciences, Alexandria, Egypt.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4493-3884
Gordana SavićFaculty of Organizational Sciences, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6233-1815
Astrid SchepmanDivision of Psychology, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Society, University of Chester, Chester, United Kingdom.
Samia Mokhtar ShahpoDepartment of Early Childhood, College of Sciences and Humanities Studies, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5230-6808
Abdelmajid SnouberFaculty of Medicine, University of Oran1, Oran, Algeria.
Emma SolerDepartment of Economics and Social Sciences, International University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain.
Bengi SonyelDepartment of Educational Sciences, Eastern Mediterranean University, Famagusta, Cyprus.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0765-5408
Eliza StefanovaFaculty of Mathematics and Informatics, Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski, Sofia, Bulgaria.
Anna StoneSchool of Psychology, University of East London, London, United Kingdom.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8883-9553
Artur StrzeleckiDepartment of Informatics, University of Economics in Katowice, Katowice, Poland.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3487-0971
Tetsuji TanakaDepartment of Economics, Meiji Gakuin University, Tokyo, Japan.
Carolina Tapia CortesDepartment of Education and Humanities, University of Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico.
Andrea Teira-FachadoDepartment of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of A Coruna, A Coruna, Spain.
Henri TilgaInstitute of Sport Sciences and Physiotherapy, University of Tartu, Tartu. Estonia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6363-4882
Jelena TitkoEKA University of Applied Sciences, Riga, Latvia.
Maryna TolmachFaculty of Distance Learning, Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts, Kyiv, Ukraine.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7020-1348
Dedi TurmudiEnglish Education Study Program, Faculty of Teachers' Training and Education, Muhammadiyah University of Metro, Metro, Indonesia.
Laura Varela-CandamioDepartment of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of A Coruna, A Coruna, Spain.
Ioanna VekiriDepartment of Education, European University Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus.
Giada VicentiniDepartment of Human Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7120-4965
Erisher WoyoFaculty of Business & Law, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom.
Özlem YorulmazDepartment of Econometrics & Statistics, Faculty of Economics, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Türkiye.
Said A S YunusSchool of Education, State University of Zanzibar (SUZA), Zanzibar, Tanzania.
Ana-Maria ZamfirFaculty of Business and Administration, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania.
Munyaradzi ZhouInformation and Marketing Sciences, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe.
Aleksander AristovnikFaculty of Public Administration, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1345-9649

Funding

No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.

6 · The paper itself

Abstract

The paper presents the most comprehensive and large-scale global study to date on how higher education students perceived the use of ChatGPT in early 2024. With a sample of 23,218 students from 109 countries and territories, the study reveals that students primarily used ChatGPT for brainstorming, summarizing texts, and finding research articles, with a few using it for professional and creative writing. They found it useful for simplifying complex information and summarizing content, but less reliable for providing information and supporting classroom learning, though some considered its information clearer than that from peers and teachers. Moreover, students agreed on the need for AI regulations at all levels due to concerns about ChatGPT promoting cheating, plagiarism, and social isolation. However, they believed ChatGPT could potentially enhance their access to knowledge and improve their learning experience, study efficiency, and chances of achieving good grades. While ChatGPT was perceived as effective in potentially improving AI literacy, digital communication, and content creation skills, it was less useful for interpersonal communication, decision-making, numeracy, native language proficiency, and the development of critical thinking skills. Students also felt that ChatGPT would boost demand for AI-related skills and facilitate remote work without significantly impacting unemployment. Emotionally, students mostly felt positive using ChatGPT, with curiosity and calmness being the most common emotions. Further examinations reveal variations in students' perceptions across different socio-demographic and geographic factors, with key factors influencing students' use of ChatGPT also being identified. Higher education institutions' managers and teachers may benefit from these findings while formulating the curricula and instructions/regulations for ChatGPT use, as well as when designing the teaching methods and assessment tools. Moreover, policymakers may also consider the findings when formulating strategies for secondary and higher education system development, especially in light of changing labor market needs and related digital skills development.

Indexed as

StudentsAdultFemaleGenerative Artificial IntelligenceHumansLearningMalePerceptionYoung Adult

Identifiers

PMID39908277
PMCPMC11798494

What OpenQuestion holds

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LicenceCC BY
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Registered trials

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Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.