Predicting survival in malignant glioma using artificial intelligence.

Malignant gliomas, including glioblastoma, are amongst the most aggressive primary brain tumours, characterised by rapid progression and a poor prognosis. Survival analysis is an essential aspect of glioma management and research, as most studies use time-to-event outcomes to assess overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) as key measures to evaluate patients. However, predicting survival using traditional methods such as the Kaplan-Meier estimator and the Cox Proportional Hazards (CPH) model has faced many challenges and inaccuracies. Recently, advances in artificial intelligence (AI), including machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL), have enabled significant improvements in survival prediction for glioma patients by integrating multimodal data such as imaging, clinical parameters and molecular biomarkers. This study highlights the comparative effectiveness of imaging-based, non-imaging and combined AI models. Imaging models excel at identifying tumour-specific features through radiomics, achieving high predictive accuracy. Non-imaging approaches also excel in utilising clinical and genetic data to provide complementary insights, whilst combined methods integrate multiple data modalities and have the greatest potential for accurate survival prediction. Limitations include data heterogeneity, interpretability challenges and computational demands, particularly in resource-limited settings. Solutions such as federated learning, lightweight AI models and explainable AI frameworks are proposed to overcome these barriers. Ultimately, the integration of advanced AI techniques promises to transform glioma management by enabling personalised treatment strategies and improved prognostic accuracy.