Gharial acoustic signaling: Novel underwater pops are temporally based, context-dependent, seasonally stable, male-specific, and individually distinctive.

Gharials (Gavialis gangeticus) produce a sudden, high amplitude, pulsatile, underwater sound called a POP. In this study, gharial POPs ranged from 9 to 55 ms, and were clearly audible on land and water, at ≥500 m. POPs were only performed underwater by adult males possessing a sex-specific, cartilaginous narial excrescence, termed the ghara. We recorded 130 POP events of seven wild adult males in 115 km stretch of the Chambal River during 2017-2019, using hydrophones and aerial mics. A POP event occurs when a male produces a single or double or triple POP, each with a specific duration and timing. A POP event was incorporated into a complex, multi-modal breathing display, typically performed by each male during the breeding season. Key features of this novel gharial POP signal are documented here for the first time. These include its incorporation into a complex breathing display, its reliance on temporal rather than spectral elements, its dependence on a specific social context, its stability within an individual, and its individually distinctive patterning specific to a particular male. The breathing display consisted of sub-audible vibrations (SAV) preceding each POP, then a stereotyped exhalation-inhalation-exhalation sequence, concluding with bubbling and submergence. In our study, 96% of the variation in POP signal parameters was explained by POP signal timings (92%) and number of POPs (4%), and only 2% was related to spectral features. Each POP event was performed in a specific social setting. Two behavioral contexts were examined: ALERT and PATROL. In each context, male identities were examined using Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA). Within each context, each of the seven males exhibited distinctive POP patterns that were context-specific and denoted a male's identity and his location. POP signal features were stable for individual males, from 1 year to the next. Overall, the seven males showed POP patterns that were individually specific, with minimal overlap amongst males, yet these were remarkably diverse. The stereotypy of POP patterns, based on temporal versus frequency difference was best characterized statistically using DFA metrics, rather than Beecher's Information Statistic, MANOVA, or Discriminant Score computations. Our field observations indicated that audiences of gharial, located nearby, and/or in the distance, responded immediately to POPs by orienting in the signal direction. Extensive auditory studies of crocodylians indicate that their capacity for auditory temporal discrimination and neural processing in relation to locating a sound target is on par with that of birds. How the POP sound is produced and broadcast loudly in both water and air has received little study to date. We briefly summarize existing reports on ghara anatomy, ontogeny, and paleontology. Finally, preliminary observations made in a clear underwater zoo enclosure indicate that jaw claps performed entirely underwater produce POP sounds. Simultaneous bubble clouds emanating from the base of the ghara are suggestive of cavitation phenomena associated with loud high volume sounds such as shrimp snaps and seal/walrus claps. We discuss the likelihood that the adult male's ghara plays an essential role in the production of the non-vocal underwater POP, a sexually dimorphic acoustic signal unique to gharial.