ArticleNature human behaviour2025
Associations between common genetic variants and income provide insights about the socio-economic health gradient.
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Article in Nature human behaviour, 2025. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 17 papers, 1 of them a synthesis that pooled it.
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17citing papers in PubMed, 1 pooled it
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Who cites it
17 citing papers in PubMed, 1 synthesis or guideline pooled it.
- Genetic landscape of adult executive function reveals a cell-type-specific developmental origin.Nature communications · 2026Pooled it
- Shared genetic architecture across social disconnection, social disadvantage, and psychiatric and neurodevelopmental traits.European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience · 2026Article
- Observational
- A comprehensive overview of the biological foundations of ADHD.Bioscience reports · 2026Review
- Estimating returns to education using the genetic lottery.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · 2026Article
- Sex differences in the genetic and causal relationships between depression, smoking, and alcohol use: the role of socioeconomic status.Psychological medicine · 2026Article
- Parental wealth and mental disorders in Norway (2006-2023): a nationwide registry-based study of 1.4 million young people.The Lancet regional health. Europe · 2026Article
- Imputing Parental Genotypes Through Mendelian Imputation: Ethical and Legal Considerations.Behavior genetics · 2026Review
- Polygenic Risks for Mood Disorders and Economic Well-being: Study of Finnish Cohorts.Depression and anxiety · 2026Article
- Parental income and psychiatric disorders from age 10 to 40: a genetically informative population study.Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines · 2026Article
- Genetic disparities in sleep traits and human capital development: A 25-year study in Finnish population-based cohorts.Scandinavian journal of work, environment & health · 2026Article
- Genetic associations with educational fields.Nature genetics · 2025Article
- Multivariate genome-wide analyses of insulin resistance unravel novel loci and therapeutic targets for cardiometabolic health.Nature communications · 2025Article
- Deciphering the influence of socioeconomic status on brain structure: insights from Mendelian randomization.Molecular psychiatry · 2025Article
- Reply to Hirbo et al.: The need for large-scale family cohorts and robust analytical frameworks of postexome study.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · 2025Article
- The genetic and environmental composition of socioeconomic status in Norway.Nature communications · 2025Article
- Socio-economic status is a social construct with heritable components and genetic consequences.Nature human behaviour · 2025Review
Corrections and comments
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Authors and funding
68 authors.
Hyeokmoon KweonDepartment of Economics, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3649-0457
Casper A P BurikDepartment of Economics, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2726-5570
Yuchen NingDepartment of Economics, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
Rafael AhlskogDepartment of Government, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
Charley XiaDepartment of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8194-9351
Erik AbnerInstitute of Genomics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6529-3161
Yanchun BaoSchool of Mathematics, Statistics and Actuarial Sciences, University of Essex, Essex, UK.
Laxmi BhattaHUNT Center for Molecular and Clinical Epidemiology, Department of Public Health and Nursing, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
Tariq O FaquihDepartment of Clinical Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8026-2251
Maud de FeijterDepartment of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
Paul FisherInstitute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex, Essex, UK.
Andrea GelemanovićDepartment of Public Health, University of Split School of Medicine, Split, Croatia.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9195-646X
Alexandros GiannelisDepartment of Psychology, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Minneapolis, USA.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4587-0336
Jouke-Jan HottengaDepartment of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5668-2368
Bita KhaliliDepartment of Computational Biology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5630-1812
Yunsung LeeCentre for Fertility and Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2512-1082
Ruifang Li-GaoDepartment of Clinical Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands.
Jaan MassoSchool of Economics and Business Administration, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.
Ronny MyhreDepartment of Genetics and Bioinformatics, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway.
Teemu PalviainenInstitute for Molecular Medicine Finland, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7847-8384
Cornelius A RietveldDepartment of Applied Economics, Erasmus School of Economics, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4053-1861
Alexander TeumerDepartment of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8309-094X
Renske M VerweijDepartment of Public Administration and Sociology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
Emily A WilloughbyDepartment of Psychology, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Minneapolis, USA.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7559-1544
Esben AgerboiPSYCH-the Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2849-524X
Sven BergmannDepartment of Computational Biology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6785-9034
Dorret I BoomsmaDepartment of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7099-7972
Anders D BørglumiPSYCH-the Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8627-7219
Ben M BrumptonK.G. Jebsen Center for Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Public Health and Nursing, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3058-1059
Neil Martin DaviesK.G. Jebsen Center for Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Public Health and Nursing, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2460-0508
Tõnu EskoInstitute of Genomics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.
Scott D GordonGenetic Epidemiology Lab, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7623-328X
Georg HomuthInterfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6839-0605
M Arfan IkramDepartment of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0372-8585
Magnus JohannessonDepartment of Economics, Stockholm School of Economics, Stockholm, Sweden.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8759-6393
Jaakko KaprioInstitute for Molecular Medicine Finland, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3716-2455
Michael P KiddEconomics, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Zoltán KutalikDepartment of Computational Biology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8285-7523
Alex S F KwongMRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
James J LeeDepartment of Psychology, University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Minneapolis, USA.
Annemarie I LuikDepartment of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7517-197X
Per MagnusCentre for Fertility and Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6427-4735
Pedro Marques-VidalDepartment of Medicine, Internal Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4548-8500
Nicholas G MartinMedical Research Council Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4069-8020
Dennis O Mook-KanamoriDepartment of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
Preben Bo MortenseniPSYCH-the Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
Sven OskarssonDepartment of Government, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8698-2866
Emil M PederseniPSYCH-the Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
Ozren PolašekDepartment of Public Health, University of Split School of Medicine, Split, Croatia.
Frits R RosendaalDepartment of Clinical Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2558-7496
Melissa C SmartInstitute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex, Essex, UK.
Harold SniederDepartment of Epidemiology, University of Groningen and University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1949-2298
Peter J van der MostDepartment of Epidemiology, University of Groningen and University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8450-3518
Peter VollenweiderTrimbos Institute-Netherlands Institute for Mental Health and Addiction, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
Henry VölzkeInstitute for Community Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.
Gonneke WillemsenDepartment of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
Jonathan P BeauchampInterdisciplinary Center for Economic Science and Department of Economics, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA.
Thomas A DiPreteDepartment of Sociology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9485-3658
Richard Karlsson LinnérDepartment of Economics, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7839-2858
Qiongshi LuDepartment of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4514-0969
Tim T MorrisCentre for Longitudinal Studies, Social Research Institute, University College London, London, UK.
Aysu OkbayDepartment of Economics, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5170-7781
K Paige HardenDepartment of Psychology and Population Reseach Center, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1557-6737
Abdel AbdellaouiDepartment of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. a.abdellaoui@amsterdamumc.nl.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1088-6784
W David HillDepartment of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK. David.Hill@ed.ac.uk.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7205-1606
Ronald de VlamingDepartment of Econometrics and Data Science, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6416-6067
Daniel J BenjaminAnderson School of Management, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2642-5416
Philipp D KoellingerDepartment of Economics, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. p.d.koellinger@vu.nl.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7413-0412
Funding
Infrastructure and Core Activities of the Social Science Genetic Association ConsortiumR24AG065184 · NIA · UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA · PI BENJAMIN, DANIEL J · 2019 to 2023
$1.8MNIA NIH HHS R24 AG065184
Abstract
We conducted a genome-wide association study on income among individuals of European descent (N = 668,288) to investigate the relationship between socio-economic status and health disparities. We identified 162 genomic loci associated with a common genetic factor underlying various income measures, all with small effect sizes (the Income Factor). Our polygenic index captures 1-5% of income variance, with only one fourth due to direct genetic effects. A phenome-wide association study using this index showed reduced risks for diseases including hypertension, obesity, type 2 diabetes, depression, asthma and back pain. The Income Factor had a substantial genetic correlation (0.92, s.e. = 0.006) with educational attainment. Accounting for the genetic overlap of educational attainment with income revealed that the remaining genetic signal was linked to better mental health but reduced physical health and increased risky behaviours such as drinking and smoking. These findings highlight the complex genetic influences on income and health.
Indexed as
Genetic VariationHealth Status DisparitiesIncomeSocial ClassAdultEducational StatusFemaleGenome-Wide Association StudyHumansMaleMental HealthMiddle AgedMultifactorial InheritancePolymorphism, Single NucleotideSocioeconomic Factors
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